The Sundaic Region
The Sundaic Region, as here defined, includes all of the Malay Peninsula; the Greater Sunda Islands of Borneo, Sumatra, and Java; and numerous smaller islands. It corresponds to a larger ancient landmass (known as Sundaland) that was exposed at various times throughout the last 2.6 million years during periods when sea levels were lower. Before sea levels rose again at the end of the last Ice Age Borneo had been part of the mainland of Asia, forming, with Java and Sumatra, the upland regions of a peninsula that extended east from present-day Indochina. The South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula. Deeper waters separating Borneo from neighbouring Sulawesi prevented a land connection, creating, as previously noted, the divide known as Wallace’s Line between Asian, Australian and Papua-Melanesian zoogeographic regions. The climate of this region is, of course, entirely tropical, with diverse habitats, large forests, and high mountains, and the fauna shares affinities with mainland Asia.
Species and subspecies
The Sundaic lesser one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus) was historically found on Sumatra and Java, but was exterminated everywhere on the former island during the 1940s except in Loeser National Park, where it hung on a few decades more before ultimately being wiped out. It may have represented a distinct species or subspecies, but we will likely never know.
The western two-horned rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis) occurred in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. It is thought to have survived in very small numbers in the Tenasserim Mountains up to perhaps the twenty-first century, but is now certainly extirpated from the Asian mainland. The subspecies persists in Sumatra, however, where it will be discussed in greater detail.
The Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) is the largest of the living tapir species and the only Asian representative. Once found throughout the tropical rainforests of Cambodia, southern and central Sumatra, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam, at all elevations, it is now largely restricted to the Malay Peninsula (parts of Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia) and to Sumatra, where populations have been drastically reduced by hunting and loss of habitat.
The siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus) is a large black gibbon confined to lowland and montane rainforests in southern peninsular Malaysia and the island of Sumatra, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The agile gibbon (Hylobates agilis) is found in both lowland and montane forests in southern peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. Geoffroy’s white-handed gibbon (H. lar entelloides) is found in southern Myanmar and south-western Thailand. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the illegal pet trade.
The southern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) is found in southern peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, and Bangka, where it is threatened by loss of habitat, hunting for food, and collection for use as pets.
The Sunda slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) is a small, nocturnal prosimian found in the southern Malay Peninsula, central and southern Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, the Natuna Islands, and Singapore, where it is threatened mainly by collection for the international pet trade.
The southern serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) is a type of goat-antelope that lives in the mountains of Sumatra and peninsular Malaysia, where it has been much-hunted.
The Sunda bearded pig (Sus barbatus) is divided into two subspecies, both of which are threatened by loss of habitat. The nominate form (S. b. barbatus) was historically found throughout Borneo and some of its nearshore islands, the Malay Peninsula, Singapore and the Riau Islands (although it has been extirpated from the latter islands, and much of its former range elsewhere).
The Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) is divided into two subspecies found, respectively, on Borneo and Sumatra, although fossil evidence indicates that the species formerly occurred on Java as well. They will be discussed below.
The flat-headed cat (Prionailurus planiceps) is a small wild cat found patchily on the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. It is threatened by loss of its wetland habitat.
The Sunda wild dog (Cuon alpinus sumatrensis) is largely confined to protected area on Sumatra and Java.
The Sunda binturong (Arctictis binturong penicillata) is a large viverrid known from Sumatra and Java.
The otter civet (Cynogale bennettii) is a semi-aquatic species found in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and pollution.
The smoky flying squirrel (Pteromyscus pulverulentus) is fairly widespread in the southern Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo, but has undergone significant population declines due to habitat destruction.
The arrow flying squirrel (Petinomys sagitta) is known only from a single specimen collected on Java in 1766, although it may also occur on the island of Bangka. Hagen’s flying squirrel (P. hageni) is known only from a few specimens collected in northern Sumatra and western Borneo, but is almost certainly more widespread. Vordermann’s flying squirrel (P. vordermanni) is known from a few scattered localities on the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and the Riau Islands off eastern Sumatra. The whiskered flying squirrel (P. genibarbis) is found in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, northern Borneo and eastern Java. All are presumably threatened by deforestation.
The Niobe ground squirrel (Lariscus niobe) is known from the mountains of western Sumatra and eastern Java, where it has likely been impacted by loss of habitat.
The Rajah spiny rat (Maxomys rajah) and Whitehead’s spiny rat (M. whiteheadi) are both found in the southern Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.
The bare-backed rousette fruit bat (Rousettus spinalatus) is a cave-roosting species known only from northern Sumatra and northern Borneo (Sabah, Sarawak and Kalimantan Utara).
Ridley’s leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros ridleyi) is found patchily in peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and northern and western Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah). The orbiculus leafnosed bat (H. orbiculus) is known from a few localities in peninsular Malaysia and central Sumatra. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
Vordermann’s pipistrelle bat (Hypsugo vordermanni) is known from a few sporadic records originating in coastal Borneo, Banggi Island, and Belitung.
Andersen’s horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus nereis) is known only from Siantan Island in the Anambas Islands and from the North Natuna Islands, in the South China Sea.
The Krau woolly bat (Kerivoula krauensis) is found widely but patchily in the southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Sumatra.
The bronze tube-nosed bat (Murina aenea) is found in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo. The gilded tube-nosed bat (M. rozendaali) is found patchily in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and southern Sumatra. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The false serotine bat (Hesperoptenus doriae) is known only from a few specimens collected in southern peninsular Malaysia and north-western Borneo (Sarawak).
The northern free-tailed bat (Chaerephon johorensis) is known only from a few specimens collected in the southern Malay Peninsula and from Sumatra.
Herman’s mouse-eared bat (Myotis hermani) is known only from three individuals collected from the Malay Peninsula and Sabang Island north of Sumatra.
The Malayan tailless leaf-nosed bat (Coelops robinsoni) is a cave-roosting species known only from southern peninsular Malaysia and eastern Borneo.
Storm’s stork (Ciconia stormi) is found patchily on the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo, where it lives primarily in swamp forests. One of the rarest of the storks, the total population is thought to number less than 500 and continues to be threatened by deforestation and dam construction.
Wallace’s hawk-eagle (Nisaetus nanus) remains widespread across the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo, but is everywhere rare and declining due to loss of habitat.
The helmeted hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil) is found widely but patchily in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo, where it is has become very rare due to severe hunting pressure and habitat destruction.
The plain-pouched hornbill (Rhyticeros subruficollis) is found in southern Myanmar, western Thailand and the Malay Peninsula, where the population is small and declining due to hunting and loss of habitat.
Vieillot’s crested fireback pheasant (Lophura rufa) occurs patchily in peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Bangka. The crestless fireback pheasant (L. erythrophthalma) is found in peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
The black partridge (Melanoperdix niger) occurs patchily in lowland as well as lower montane areas of southern peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The chestnut-necklaced partridge (Tropicoperdix charltonii) is divided into three subspecies, all of which are threatened by habitat destruction and collection for the cage-bird trade. The nominate form (T. c. charltonii) is found patchily in southern peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.
The black and red coucal (Centropus nigrorufus) is a type of cuckoo confined to a few coastal areas on Java and perhaps Sumatra. The short-toed coucal (C. rectunguis) is found in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Sumatra. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and trapping.
The Sunda nightjar (Caprimulgus concretus) is a rare species from Sumatra, Borneo and Belitung.
The silvery pigeon (Columba argentina) appears always to have had a highly restricted range. It was recorded during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries from a few offshore islands in the Natuna Sea (west of Borneo) and west of Sumatra, and possibly on the adjacent mainland areas as well. Last recorded in 1931 and thought to be extinct, beginning in 2008 a small number of wild birds have been photographed within the Mentawai Islands. The reason for the species’ decline is thought to have been loss of habitat, hunting and the introduction of mammalian predators.
The large green pigeon (Treron capellei) is found in the Malay Peninsula as well as on Sumatra and Borneo, but is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat.
The southern pied starling (Gracupica jalla) is historically known from Java, Bali and eastern Sumatra (Lampung province), but appears to have been completely extirpated from the wild within the past few decades due to trapping for the illegal cage-bird trade. Large numbers are being bred in commercial bird farms in Java, although imports of a related species and the apparent interbreeding of the two make it unlikely that these might serve as a source for captive breeding. A population of genetically pure southern pied starlings may survive, however, within the Bali Bird Park.
The ruby-throated bulbul (Rubigula dispar) is a passerine bird found on Sumatra, Java and Bali, where it is declining rapidly due to trapping for the international cage-bird trade.
The hook-billed bulbul (Setornis criniger) is found in eastern Sumatra and Borneo, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The greater green leafbird (Chloropsis sonnerati) is widespread in lowland rainforest areas of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Bali, but is everywhere threatened by overcollection for the cage-bird trade and loss of habitat.
The Sunda white-eye (Zosterops flavus) is a passerine bird found patchily in the coastal areas of southern Borneo and northern Java, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the cage-bird trade.
The large-billed blue flycatcher (Cyornis caerulatus) is found patchily in lowland rainforest areas of Sumatra and Borneo.
The false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) is a type of crocodilian found sporadically in swamp forest and wetland areas of peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra and (possibly) far western Java, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Indochinese box turtle (Cuora amboinensis kamaroma) occurs in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, the Malay Peninsula and Borneo. The South Indonesian box turtle (C. a. couro) is found in Sumatra, Java, Bali and Sumbawa. Both are seriously threatened by overcollection for use as food and in ‘traditional medicine’, as well as for the international pet trade.
The South East Asian narrow-headed softshell turtle (Chitra chitra) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (C. c. chitra) is found in Malaysia and Thailand, while the Sunda narrow-headed softshell turtle (C. c. javanensis) is confined to Java and Sumatra. Both are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
The Sunda giant turtle (Orlitia borneensis) is found disjunctly in southern peninsular Malaysia, eastern Sumatra, and southern Borneo. It has been seriously depleted by overharvesting.
The painted roofed turtle (Batagur borneoensis) is confined to the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.
The Bengkulu cat snake (Boiga bengkuluensis) is known only from isolated records in southern peninsular Thailand and Sumatra.
The spotted coral snake (Calliophis gracilis) is known only from a few historical collections in east-central Sumatra, the southern Malay Peninsula, Singapore, and Penang Island.
The goldstripe rasbora (Rasbora chrysotaenia) is a popular aquarium fish that nevertheless has never been scientifically recorded in the wild state. It is believed to originate somewhere in the East Indies.
The tricolour sharkminnow (Balantiocheilos melanopterus) is found widely but patchily in peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.
The Sundaic knight goby (Stigmatogobius borneensis) is known only from a handful of specimens collected from brackish streams on Borneo. One was also collected from Singapore in 1878 although the species is believed to be extirpated there now, and there is a further (unverified) record from Sumatra.
The smooth-thorn sheatfish (Ompok leiacanthus) is confined to peat swamps in Sumatra and Bangka.
Bleeker’s pipefish (Doryichthys heterosoma) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Sambas and Lupar rivers of western Borneo and from the Natuna Islands.
The Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula (Semenanjung Tanah Melayu in Malay) runs almost directly north to south and, at its terminus, is the southernmost point on the Asian mainland. It includes southern Thailand, southern Myanmar, peninsular Malaysia and satellite islands such as Singapore.
The Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) was historically found in forested habitats throughout the Malay Peninsula, from montane areas to peatlands. It formerly occurred in Thailand and Singapore as well, but is now extinct there (the last wild tiger in Singapore was shot dead in 1930). The total estimated population declined from roughly 3000 in the 1950s to around 500 by the end of the century, and continues to fall. The latest estimate is around 250–340, mainly confined to protected areas of remote montane forest. Even there they continue to be threatened by poachers.
The Malaysian white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar lar) is confined to the Malay Peninsula.
The banded surili (Presbytis femoralis) is a type of leafeating monkey divided into three subspecies, two of which are endemic to the Malay Peninsula. The Malaysian banded surili (P. f. femoralis) is confined to the southern Malay Peninsula and the island of Singapore. Robinson’s banded surili (P. f. robinsoni) is found in southern Thailand, southern Myanmar and Peninsular Malaysia.
Fea’s muntjac (Muntiacus feae) is a little-known species from the Malay Peninsula (southern Myanmar and southern Thailand), where it is likely threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
The Malaysian tree rat (Pithecheir parvus) is confined to southern peninsular Malaysia (Pahang and Johore states).
The Burmese pipistrelle bat (Hypsugo lophurus) is known only from its original collection in 1915 from southern peninsular Myanmar.
The Selangor leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros nequam) is only known from a single specimen collected during the nineteenth century in south-western peninsular Malaysia (Selangor state).
The Chiku bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus hidupselamanya) is confined to a single karst outcrop situated within a limestone formation in central peninsular Malaysia.
The Larut Hills caecilian (Ichthyophis larutensis) is known from two nineteenth-century records and one recent one from the border region of southern peninsular Thailand and northwestern peninsular Malaysia. Supachai’s caecilian (I. supachaii) is known only from a small number of specimens collected in southern peninsular Thailand (Nakhon Si Thammarat and Trang provinces).
The Tenasserim Range
The Tenasserim Range (Thio Khao Tanao Si in Thai/Banjaran Tanah Seri in Malay) is a roughly 1700-km chain of mountains and hills located in southern Myanmar, south-western Thailand and peninsular Malaysia.
Tickell’s brown hornbill (Anorrhinus tickelli) is a rare species confined to the Tenasserim Mountains, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Chong Mountains
The Chong Mountains (Khao Chong in Thai) are located in southern peninsular Thailand.
The Chong stream toad (Ansonia siamensis) appears to be confined to the Chong Mountains.
The Titiwangsa Range
The Titiwangsa Range (Banjaran Titiwangsa in Malay/Khao Sankalakhiri in Thai) is the southernmost section of the Tenasserim Mountains. It runs some 480 km along the Malay Peninsula in southern Thailand and Malaysia.
The mountain peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron inopinatum) is known for certain only from scattered localities within central peninsular Malaysia, but may also occur in extreme southern Thailand.
Robinson’s whistling-thrush (Myiophonus robinsoni) is found patchily in peninsular Malaysia, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Waterstradt’s bullfinch (Pyrrhula waterstradti) is a rare species from peninsular Malaysia (Pahang, Perak, and Selangor states).
Jeet Sukumaran’s stream toad (Ansonia jeetsukumarani) is known only from a few localities in peninsular Malaysia (Pahang and Kelantan states).
The Larut Hills rice frog (Microhyla annectens) has only been recorded with certainty from Bukit Larut, the Cameron Highlands, and the Genting Highlands of peninsular Malaysia.
The Tanah Rata wart frog (Limnonectes nitidus) is known from a few localities in peninsular Malaysia (Pahang state). The Cameron Highlands (Tanah Tinggi Cameron in Malay) is a plateau located in peninsular Malaysia (Pahang, Perak and Selangor states).
The Cameron Highlands white-bellied rat (Niviventer cameroni) is confined to the Cameron Highlands.
The convex horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus convexus) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Cameron Highlands.
The Cameron Highlands pit viper (Popeia nebularis) is known only from a single locality in the Cameroon Highlands, where it is threatened by illegal collection for the international exotic pet trade.
The Genting Highlands (Tanah Tinggi Genting in Malay) is a plateau located in peninsular Malaysia (Pahang state). A large and expanding resort complex, the continued construction of hotels and other developments is having a serious impact on the environment.
The precious stream toad (Ansonia smeagol) is confined to the Genting Highlands.
Mount Jerai (Gunung Jerai in Malay, and formerly known as Kedah Peak) is located in peninsular Malaysia (Kedah state).
The Jerai odorous frog (Odorrana monjerai) is confined to montane streams and their environs on Mount Jerai. Mount Tahan (Gunung Tahan in Malay) is located in central peninsular Malaysia (Pahang state), within Taman Negara National Park.
Robinson’s sticky frog (Kalophrynus robinsoni) is known only from Mount Tahan, where it was last reported in 1922. Fraser’s Hill is located in peninsular Malaysia (Pahang state).
The Fraser’s Hill day gecko (Cnemaspis flavolineata) is known only from three specimens collected from Fraser’s Hill.
Lowland Tropical Rainforests and Swamp Forests
The once-extensive lowland rainforests within the Malay Peninsula have been largely replaced by oil palm plantations.
The Selangor pygmy flying squirrel (Petaurillus kinlochii) is known only from a few specimens collected in south-western peninsular Malaysia.
The social pipistrelle bat (Arielulus societatis) is known only from lowland forest fragments within southern peninsular Malaysia.
The Malayan peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron malacense) is found in peninsular Malaysia and, at least historically, in southern peninsular Thailand as well. The species has been heavily impacted by hunting and habitat destruction, and is now largely confined to isolated forest patches within protected areas.
The white-fronted scops owl (Otus sagittatus) is found patchily in lowland and foothill forests patches in the Malay Peninsula.
Gurney’s pitta (Hydrornis gurneyi) is an extremely rare passerine bird now confined to a few remaining patches of lowland forest in peninsular Myanmar, having been extirpated from adjacent areas of Thailand where it was once common.
Sworder’s bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus sworderi) is confined to a few scattered localities in peninsular Malaysia (Johor and Pahang states), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Groundwater’s keelback (Hebius groundwateri) is a type of snake confined to a small area of peninsular Thailand (Ranong and Chumphon provinces).
Jintakune’s kukri snake (Oligodon jintakunei) is known only from a single specimen collected from southern peninsular Thailand (Krabi province).
The banded green cat snake (Boiga saengsomi) is known only from a single locality in southern peninsular Thailand (Krabi province), where it is threatened by oil palm expansion.
Shäfer’s spinejaw snake (Xenophidion schaeferi) is known only from a single specimen collected in south-western peninsular Malaysia (Selangor state).
Klemmer’s blind snake (Malayotyphlops klemmeri) is known only from a single specimen collected near Kuala Lumpur in peninsular Malaysia (Selangor state).
The Gollum toad (Ingerophrynus gollum) is known only from two small, disjunct localities in peninsular Malaysia (Johor and Selangor states), but presumably occurs more widely. The Kumquat toad (I. kumquat) is confined to peat swamps in south-western peninsular Malaysia, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
The Endau stream toad (Ansonia endauensis) is known only from Endau-Rompin National Park in peninsular Malaysia (Johor state). Grismer’s stream toad (A. latirostra) is known only from two widely separated localities in peninsular Malaysia (Pahang state). Latiff’s stream toad (A. latiffi) is confined to a few localities in peninsular Malaysia (Pahang and Terengganu states). All are threatened by loss of habitat.
The ashy shrub frog (Philautus cinerascens) is known only from its original collection during the late nineteenth century from peninsular Myanmar. Kemp’s shrub frog (P. kempii) and the Kobo shrub frog (P. microdiscus) are both known only from their original collection during the early twentieth century from north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
Kiew’s sticky frog (Kalophrynus palmatissimus) is confined to a small area of peninsular Malaysia (Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Johor states).
The minute balloon frog (Glyphoglossus minutus) is known only from two localities within Taman Negara National Park and a third in the Krau Wildlife Reserve in peninsular Malaysia (Pahang state).
The Hala Bala dwarf litter frog (Leptobrachella solus) is known only from Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary in peninsular Thailand (Narathiwat province). It may occur more widely.
Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes
The Malay Peninsula features a number of rivers draining either side of the central mountains, along with biologically important peat bogs.
Two little-known species of water snake (Enhydris) are known only from southern peninsular Malaysia. The Pahang water snake (E. pahangensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1940s. The Selangor water snake (E. indica) is known only from a few specimens collected from Selangor state and a further, rather questionable old record from Singapore.
The Siamese perch (Badis siamensis) is confined to peninsular Thailand and the island of Phuket, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international aquarium trade.
Hale’s barb (Discherodontus halei) is known for certain only from the Pahang River of western peninsular Malaysia. Two other disjunct populations, in the Tapi River of southern Thailand and in the Chao Phraya drainage of north-central Thailand, are likely referable to a different species.
The strawberry rasbora (Boraras naevus) is known from swamps in peninsular Thailand (Surat Thani province), and may be found more widely within the lower Tapi River drainage.
Harvey’s gourami (Parosphromenus harveyi) is confined to peat swamps in western peninsular Malaysia (Selangor and Perak states).
Several gouramis of the genus Betta are threatened by habitat degradation, overcollection for the international aquarium trade, and hybridization with released captive betta species. The Songkhla betta (B. ferox) is confined to a single locality in southern peninsular Thailand (Songkhla province). The Persephone betta (B. persephone) is known only from a small area of peat swamp forest in peninsular Malaysia (Johor state). The Selangor betta (B. livida) is confined to peat swamps in peninsular Malaysia (Selangor and Perak states). The hillstream betta (B. apollon) is confined to a small area of south-eastern peninsular Thailand. The pallid betta (B. pallida) is confined to a few coastal drainages in south-eastern peninsular Thailand and to Ko Samui Island. The blackwater betta (B. hipposideros) is known only from peat swamps in peninsular Malaysia (Selangor state) and from the Indragiri River drainage in central-eastern coastal Sumatra (Riau province). Tom’s betta (B. tomi) is confined to peninsular Malaysia (Johor and a few offshore islands). The species formerly occurred on Singapore as well, but was last recorded there in 1937 and now certain extirpated. Kuehne’s betta (B. kuehnei) is confined to a few coastal streams in north-eastern peninsular Malaysia and extreme south-eastern peninsular Thailand. The Krabi betta (B. simplex) is found only in a small area of karst spring and wetlands near Khao Thong in southern peninsular Thailand (Krabi province).
The armoured stickleback (Indostomus crocodilus) is confined to a small area of the south-eastern Malay Peninsula, specifically the Toh Daeng peat swamp forest in Thailand (Narathiwat province), and north-western Malaysia (Kelantan state). It is threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international aquarium trade.
The Toh Daeng catfish (Pseudeutropius indigens) is known only from the Toh Daeng peat swamp forest in south-eastern peninsular Thailand (Narathiwat province).
The Bebar-Sedili airbreathing catfish (Encheloclarias kelioides) was historically known from peat swamps within the Bebar and Sedili River drainages of southern peninsular Malaysia. Last reported in 1993, it may be extinct. The Selangor airbreathing catfish (E. curtisoma) is known only from the North Selangor peat swamp forest in southern peninsular Malaysia (Selangor).
The Tenasserim stream catfish (Akysis pictus) is confined to southern peninsular Myanmar. The Kra Isthmus stream catfish (A. pulvinatus) is confined to the Kra Isthmus in southern peninsular Thailand.
The enigmatic loach (Ellopostoma mystax) is known only from the Tapi and Saiburi river drainages in peninsular Thailand.
The tri-banded stone loach (Schistura balteata) is known only from a small area of the southern Malay Peninsula (Myanmar and Thailand).
The elongated eel-loach (Pangio elongata) is confined to hillstreams in peninsular Myanmar.
The Tapi River
The Tapi River is located in peninsular Thailand.
The Tapi stone loach (Nemacheilus ornatus) is confined to the Tapi River drainage.
The Muar River
The Muar River (Sungai Muar in Malay) is located in peninsular Malaysia (Johor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang states).
Duncker’s priapium fish (Phallostethus dunckeri) is known only from the Muar River.
Coasts and Satellite Islands
Coastal areas within the Malay Peninsula, and in particular its mangroves, are highly threatened by development, conversion to shrimp ponds and pollution.
The striped mangrove goby (Mugilogobius fasciatus) is known only from a few disjunct mangrove creeks and pools within peninsular Malaysia.
Singapore
Singapore and its associated islets lie just slightly north of the equator, at the southernmost tip of peninsular Malaysia. Its environment has changed drastically due to rapid urbanization and immense population density. In 1819, when a British trading post was first established there, the island was still nearly covered in rainforest. Before long massive deforestation had begun and was largely completed by the twentieth century. By some estimates Singapore has lost about 95 per cent of its natural habitat.
The Singapore mouse-eared bat (Myotis oreias) is known only from a single specimen purported to have been collected on Singapore.
The Singapore caecilian (Ichthyophis singaporensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the midtwentieth century.
Penang
Penang (Pulau Penang in Malay) is located in the Malacca Strait off the north-western coast of peninsular Malaysia.
The Penang stream toad (Ansonia penangensis) is known only from Penang Island. The collection of tadpoles on Penang Hill in 2004 represented the first record for the species in over a century.
The Penang Hill frog (Fejervarya pulla) is known only from its original collection in 1870.
Tioman
Tioman Island (Pulau Tioman in Malay) is located off the eastern coast of peninsular Malaysia.
The Tioman pit viper (Popeia buniana) is confined to Tioman Island, where it is threatened by overcollection for the international pet trade.
The Tioman ground snake (Gongylosoma mukutense), Boo-Liat’s kukri snake (Oligodon booliati) and Inger’s reed snake (Calamaria ingeri) are all known only from a single forest fragment, which is still under threat from development.
The Tioman stream toad (Ansonia tiomanica) is confined to three localities on Tioman Island.
The Kajang slender litter frog (Leptolalax kajangensis) is known with certainty only from a single small cave atop Mount Kajang, although larvae thought to be conspecific have been found at lower elevations.
The Tioman stone loach (Speonectes tiomanensis) is known only from a single cave on Tioman.
Great Perhentian
Great Perhentian (Perhentian Besar in Malay) is located in the Perhentian Islands off the eastern coast of Malaysia.
The Perhentian spectacled langur (Trachypithecus obscurus styx) is confined to Great Perhentian.
The Riau Islands
The Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau in Indonesian) are a group of 1796 small islands scattered between the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo.
The Riau pale-thighed surili (Presbytis siamensis rhionis) is known for certain only from Bintan, although it may occur on the nearby islands of Batam and Galang as well.
The Riau betta (Betta spilotogena) is a type of freshwater fish confined to the islands of Bintan and Singkep. Bintan (Pulau Bintan in Malay) is located south of Singapore.
The Bintan betta (Betta miniopinna) is a type of fish confined to Bintan.
Sumatra
Sumatra (Sumatera in Indonesian) is a large island located in western Indonesia. It lies close to the Asian mainland and differs biogeographically only slightly from the nearby Malay Peninsula. While seriously affected by human activities, it nevertheless serves as a refuge for many species either very rare or no longer to be found anywhere else.
The Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) was historically widespread on the island, but now survives only in highly fragmented populations. It is threatened by habitat destruction, poaching, and conflict with humans.
The western two-horned rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis), previously discussed in this volume, historically occurred in the Malay Peninsula and on Sumatra. It is now extirpated from the Asian mainland, and today only 75–85 are thought to remain on Sumatra, mostly in the national parks of Bukit Barisan Selatan and Gunung Leuser but also in Way Kambas National Park. There is a small captive population.
Two species of orangutan (Pongo) are endemic to Sumatra. The Aceh orangutan (P. abelii) is confined to northern Sumatra, with the majority found in Aceh province. It was formerly far more widespread, with a notable preference for lowland forest and peat swamps. Habitat loss due to logging and the creation of oil palm plantations has severely reduced the species, which in 2016 was estimated to number around 14,000. The Tapanuli orangutan (P. tapanuliensis) was only recently described in 2017 when a study showed that an isolated population living in the Batang Toru region, south of Lake Toba, is distinct from all others in both Sumatra and Borneo. By far the rarest of the great apes, it is threatened by logging, mining activities, agricultural plantations and a proposed hydroelectric dam.
The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) is the smallest of the tigers and the last surviving of the three Indonesian island subspecies. It still occurs in northern Sumatra and in the south-western mountains, where the wild population was estimated in 2014 at 400–500.
The Sumatran clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi diardi) was historically found throughout Sumatra as well as in the Batu Islands off the western coast, but now appears to be confined to a few protected areas.
The Sumatran white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar vestitus) is confined to northern Sumatra.
The North Sumatran black surili (Presbytis sumatrana) is a type of leaf-eating monkey found in north-central Sumatra and on Pulau Pini in the Batu Archipelago. Thomas’ surili (P. thomasi) is confined to northern Sumatra (Aceh and Sumatera Utara provinces), in both montane and lowland rainforest. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and trapping for use as pets.
The western tarsier (Cephalopachus bancanus) is a type of nocturnal primate divided into a number of subspecies. The Sumatran tarsier (C. b. bancanus) is confined to south-eastern Sumatra and the island of Bangka.
Hiller’s slow loris (Nycticebus hilleri) is a small, nocturnal prosimian known from northern Sumatra, north of the Batang Toru River. It may possibly occur as well on small surroundings islands, but this has yet to be determined.
The Sumatran bearded pig (Sus barbatus oi) was historically found throughout Sumatra and offshore islands, but is now confined to a few areas of central Sumatra.
The Sumatran sambar deer (Rusa unicolor equina) is confined to Sumatra.
The Simeulue rat (Rattus simalurensis) is known from the islands of Simeulue, Siumat, Lasia, and Babi off the northwestern coast of Sumatra.
Modigliani’s black-eared flying fox (Pteropus melanotus modiglianii) was originally found on Nias, the Mentawai Islands and Enggano, but was extirpated from the latter island after a severe typhoon.
The Nias hill myna (Gracula robusta) is confined to Nias and the Banyak Islands, where it has become seriously threatened due to overcollection for the pet trade.
The Sumatran ground cuckoo (Carpococcyx viridis) is known only from eight specimens (the last of which was collected in 1916) and a few more recent sightings, the majority of which have come from the Barisan Mountains in the south-western part of the island.
The graceful pitta (Erythropitta venusta) is a rare type of passerine bird found widely but patchily in western Sumatra, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Sumatran leafbird (Chloropsis media) is found widely but patchily in western Sumatra, where it is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat and collection for the cage-bird trade.
The Sumatran blue-wattled bulbul (Brachypodius nieuwenhuisii inexspectatus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1937 from an undefined locality on Sumatra.
The spatula-toothed snake (Iguanognathus werneri) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1898 from an unspecified locality in Sumatra.
Forcart’s reed snake (Calamaria forcarti) is known only from four specimens collected from two, widely separated localities (north-eastern Sumatra and the island of Nias).
The Sumatran worm snake (Argyrophis hypsobothrius) is known only from two specimens collected from an unknown locality in Sumatra.
Peters’ toad (Ingerophrynus claviger) is known only from two disjunct localities (south-western Sumatra and the island of Nias).
The elongated caecilian (Ichthyophis elongatus) is known for certain only from a small area of central-western Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province), although specimens collected from Pagai, Siberut, Pini, and Tanah Masa in the Mentawai Islands may also refer to this species. The Kapahiang caecilian (I. paucidentulus) is known only from Kepahiang and Kerinci Seblat national parks in south-western Sumatra (Bengkulu province).
The Barisan Mountains
The Barisan Mountains (Bukit Barisan in Indonesian) are located along the northern and central coast of western Sumatra, extending nearly 1700 km from north to south. They consist primarily of active volcanoes still shrouded in dense rainforest on the lower levels, and tropical pine forests higher up.
The bicoloured mitred surili (Presbytis melalophos bicolor) is a type of leaf-eating monkey confined to the highlands of west-central Sumatra from the Hari River to the Inderagiri River.
The Sumatran striped rabbit (Nesolagus netscheri) is confined to disjunct areas of remote montane rainforest in the Barisan Mountains.
The Sumatran mountain muntjac (Muntiacus montanus) is a small deer first discovered in 1914 but unrecorded since 1930 until one was snared (and released) in Kerinci Seblat National Park, central-western Sumatra, in 2002. Two others have since been photographed within the park.
The Sumatran flying squirrel (Hylopetes winstoni) is known only from a single specimen collected in northern Sumatra (Aceh province) in 1949.
The dwarf gymnure (Hylomys parvus) is a hedgehog-like species known only from Mount Kerinci and a few other nearby mountains in central-western Sumatra (Sumatera Barat, Jambi, Bengkulu and Sumatera Selatan provinces).
The Sumatran mountain spiny rat (Maxomys hylomyoides) is known only from a few disjunct localities in central-western Sumatra. The broad-nosed spiny rat (M. inflatus) is found widely but patchily within the Barisan Mountains. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Kerinci rat (Rattus korinchi) is known only from two specimens collected from Mount Kerinci and Mount Talakmau in central-western Sumatra during the early twentieth century. Hoogerwerf’s rat (R. hoogerwerfi) is known only from a few specimens collected in north-western Sumatra (Aceh province).
The Sumatran pheasant (Lophura inornata) is divided into two subspecies, both of which are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. Salvadori’s Sumatran pheasant (L. i. inornata) is found in the central and southern Barisan Mountains, while Hoogerwerf’s Sumatran pheasant (L. i. hoogerwerfi) occurs in the same range to the north.
The Sumatran cochoa (Cochoa beccarii) is a type of thrush known only from four specimens and a few sight records across the length of the Barisan Mountains.
The Sumatran laughingthrush (Garrulax bicolor) is found widely but patchily within the Barisan Mountains, where it has suffered significant declines due to habitat destruction and trapping for the cage-bird trade.
Schneider’s pitta (Hydrornis schneideri) is a ground-dwelling passerine bird found widely but patchily within the Barisan Mountains, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Sumatran mesia (Leiothrix laurinae) is a brightly coloured passerine bird found widely but patchily in the Barisan Mountains, where it is threatened by overcollection for the international pet trade.
The Aceh bulbul (Pycnonotus snouckaerti) is confined to the Barisan Mountains of northern Sumatra (Aceh province). It is threatened by habitat destruction and trapping for the cage-bird trade.
Manthey’s anglehead lizard (Gonocephalus lacunosus) is known only from two specimens collected from a single locality in north-central Sumatra (Sumatera Utara province).
The Sumatran limbless skink (Larutia sumatrensis) is known only from three localities in central-western Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province).
Werner’s kukri snake (Oligodon pulcherrimus) is known only from a few specimens collected at the beginning of the twentieth century from three localities in northern Sumatra (Aceh, Sumatera Utara and Sumatera Barat provinces).
Ulmer’s reed snake (Calamaria ulmeri) is known only from two specimens collected during the mid-twentieth century from northern Sumatra (Aceh province). The thick reed snake (C. crassa) is known only from a handful of specimens collected from Mount Talakmau and the Padang Highlands of central-western Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province).
The Sumatran toad (Duttaphrynus sumatranus) is known only from its original collection during the nineteenth century in central-western Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province).
The horned shrub frog (Philautus cornutus) is known only from two localities within the region of Mount Kerinci in central-western Sumatra (Jambi province).
The Leuser Range
The Leuser Range is located in north-western Sumatra (Aceh province). It consists of three prominent, non-volcanic peaks (Mount Leuser, Mount Loser, and Mount Tanpa-Nama). It is protected within Gunung Leuser National Park.
The Aceh rat (Rattus blangorum) is known only from two specimens collected in the foothills of the Leuser Range.
The Battak Range
The Battak Range is located in north-western Sumatra (Sumatera Utara province).
Durheim’s kukri snake (Oligodon durheimi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1913 from the Battak Range.
The Battak frog (Pulchrana debussyi) is known only from a single locality in the Battak Range.
The Toba Caldera Complex
The Toba Caldera Complex is located in north-western Sumatra (Sumatera Utara province), surrounding Lake Toba. At least four cones, four stratovolcanoes, and three craters are visible.
The Toba pit viper (Popeia toba) is known only from a few specimens collected in the early twentieth century.
Mount Talakmau
Mount Talakmau (Gunung Talakmau, and also known as Mount Ophir) is a complex volcano located in central-western Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province).
The Talakmau shrub frog (Philautus similis) is known only from Mount Talakmau.
Mount Kerinci
Mount Kerinici (Gunung Kerinci in Indonesian) is a stratovolcano located in central-western Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province), and the highest peak in the Barisan Mountains. It is protected within Kerinci Seblat National Park.
The Sumatran shrewlike mouse (Mus crociduroides) is currently known only from high-elevation montane forest on Mount Kerinci, but may occur more widely in the Barisan Mountains.
Jacobson’s false cobra (Pseudoxenodon jacobsonii) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Kerinci in the early twentieth century.
The Kerinci keelback (Hebius kerinciense) is a type of water snake known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Kerinci.
Mount Sago
Mount Sago (Gunung Malintang in Indonesian) is located in central-western Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province).
Wegner’s glass lizard (Dopasia wegneri) is known only from Mount Sago.
The Padang Highlands
The Padang Highlands are located in south-western Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan province).
The Sumatran water shrew (Chimarrogale sumatrana) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Padang Highlands in the early twentieth century.
Lowland Rainforests and Swamp Forests
At the beginning of the twentieth century Sumatra was still largely forested, with lowland rainforest predominating throughout the centre of the island (as well as on the smaller offshore islands), and peat swamps along the eastern coast. Sadly, after more than a century of massive deforestation little of this survives today beyond a few isolated patches, generally within protected areas.
The black-crested surili (Presbytis melalophos) is a type of leaf-eating monkey found in central-western coastal Sumatra, roughly from the Rokan River south to the Hari River. The mitred surili (P. mitrata) is found in southeastern Sumatra. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and trapping for use as pets. The East Sumatran banded surili (P. femoralis percura) is confined to a small area of centraleastern Sumatra.
Brooks’ fruit bat (Dyacopterus brooksi) is known only from a few specimens collected from lowland rainforests throughout Sumatra.
The Sumatran mastiff bat (Mormopterus doriae) is known only from its original description in 1907 from north-eastern Sumatra (Sumatera Utara province).
The Sumatran chestnut-necklaced partridge (Tropicoperdix charltonii atjenensis) is confined to a few disjunct areas of coastal northern and southern Sumatra (Aceh and Sumatera Selatan provinces).
Rück’s blue flycatcher (Cyornis ruckii) is known only from two specimens collected in 1917 and 1918 in north-eastern coastal Sumatra (Aceh and Sumatera Utara provinces). It is most likely extinct, a victim of habitat destruction.
Modigliani’s nose-horned lizard (Harpesaurus modigliani) is known only from Si-Rambé Forest in northern Sumatra (Sumatera Utara province).
The Ujungpadang snake (Anoplohydrus aemulans) is known only from a single specimen collected in the early twentieth century from an imprecise locality in north-western Sumatra (Aceh province).
Petronella’s kukri snake (Oligodon petronellae) is known only from a few specimens collected from central-western coastal Sumatra (Sumatra Barat province).
Döderlein’s reed snake (Calamaria doederleini) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1902 from northeastern Sumatra (Sumatera Utara province). The Bengkulu reed snake (C. alidae) is known only from four specimens collected in central-western Sumatra. Mechel’s reed snake (C. mecheli) is known only from a few specimens collected at the beginning of the twentieth century from an imprecise lowland locality in north-central Sumatra. The stripe-necked reed snake (C. margaritophora) is known only from a handful of specimens collected during the 1940s over a relatively wide area of central Sumatra. Eiselt’s reed snake (C. eiselti) is known only from its original collection in 1965 from centralwestern Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province). While the possibility exists that these cryptic burrowing forms may be more widespread than is currently known, it seems much more likely that they have been significantly reduced by the loss of their lowland rainforest habitat.
The Padang burrowing snake (Etheridgeum pulchrum) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1924 from central-western coastal Sumatra (Sumatera Barat province), in what is now the major port city of Padang. It is most likely extinct due to loss of habitat.
The Sumatran golden-backed frog (Hylarana persimilis) is known only from two specimens collected from north-eastern Sumatra (Sumatera Utara province).
Lakes, Rivers and Marshes
A number of large rivers drain from the Barisan Mountains through the lowlands of eastern Sumatra, creating intermittent swamplands.
The viper-like keelback (Hebius viperinum) is a type of water snake known only from a single specimen collected in 1901 from central Sumatra (Riau province).
The Serokan sharkminnow (Osteochilus serokan) is known only from two localities in north-western Sumatra (Aceh and Sumatera Utara provinces).
Lake Toba
Lake Toba (Danau Toba in Indonesian) is large lake occupying the caldera of a supervolcano in central-northern Sumatra (Sumatera Utara province).
Theinemann’s brook carp (Neolissochilus theinemanni) is confined to Lake Toba and its inlet upstream tributaries.
Lake Tawar
Lake Tawar (Danau Tawar in Indonesian) is an ancient volcanic caldera located in north-western Sumatra (Aceh province).
The Tawar barb (Poropuntius tawarensis) is confined to Lake Tawar, where it is seriously threatened by pollution, invasive species, water extraction, and overfishing.
The Tawar rasbora (Rasbora tawarensis) is confined to Lake Tawar, where it is seriously threatened by pollution, invasive species, water extraction, and overfishing.
Weh
Weh (Pulau Weh in Indonesian) is a small, volcanically active island located off the far northern tip of Sumatra. It has been heavily degraded and there is practically no forest left.
The Weh kukri snake (Oligodon praefrontalis) is confined to Weh Island.
The Weh toad (Duttaphrynus valhallae) is known only from a single specimen, and is possibly extinct.
Simeulue
Simeulue (Pulau Simeulue in Indonesian) is located about 150 km off the north-western coast of Sumatra.
The Simeulue long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis fuscus) is confined to Simeulue.
The Simeulue scops owl (Otus umbra) is confined to Simeulue.
The Simeulue parrot (Psittinus abbotti) is confined to the islands of Simeulue and the islet of Siumat.
Jacobson’s day gecko (Cnemaspis jacobsoni) is known only from a few specimens collected on Simeulue.
Lasia
Lasia (Pulau Lasia in Indonesian) is a small island located between Simeulue and Nias, on the western coast of Sumatra.
The Lasia long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis lasiae) is confined to Lasia.
Nias
Nias (Pulau Nias in Indonesian) is a low-elevation island located off the north-western coast of Sumatra.
The Nias binturong (Arctictis binturong niasensis) is a large viverrid confined to Nias.
The Nias reed snake (Calamaria abstrusa) is known only from a few specimens collected from Nias.
The Mentawai Islands
The Mentawai Islands (Kepulauan Mentawai in Indonesian) are a chain of about 70 islands and islets lying alongside the western coast of Sumatra, the four largest of which are Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara, and Pagai Selatan. Isolated from the mainland for more than half a million years has allowed the survival of relicts from an earlier Indo-Malaysian fauna as well as the evolution of a number of endemic species, including several primates.
Kloss’ gibbon (Hylobates klossii) is an all-black species resembling a small siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus). It is still found on all four of the main islands (Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara, and Pagai Selatan), with the largest remaining population occurring in Siberut National Park. Threats include hunting and commercial logging.
The Pagai macaque (Macaca pagensis) is confined to the smaller southern islands of Pagai Utara, Pagai Selatan, and Sipora.
The pig-tailed langur (Simias concolor) is a large, heavily built species thought to be related to the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) of Borneo. There are two subspecies found throughout the Mentawai Islands. The Pagai pig-tailed langur (S. c. concolor) is found on Pagai Utara, Pagai Selatan, Sipora, and the nearby islets of Simalegu and Sinakak.
The Mentawai surili (Presbytis potenziani) is a type of leafeating monkey found on Sipora, North Pagai, South Pagai and the islet of Sinakak. The Siberut surili (P. siberu) is confined to Siberut. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and hunting.
The Mentawai palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus lignicolor) is confined to the Mentawai Islands.
The Mentawai flying squirrel (Iomys sipora) is confined to Sipora and Pagai Utara.
The Mentawai dwarf flying squirrel (Petinomys lugens) is confined to Siberut, Sipora and Pagai Utara.
The Mentawai black-bellied squirrel (Callosciurus melanogaster) is found patchily within the Mentawai Islands, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The fraternal squirrel (Sundasciurus fraterculus) is confined to Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara and Pagai Selatan.
The Mentawai long-tailed giant rat (Leopoldamys siporanus) is confined to Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara and Pagai Selatan.
The Mentawai spiny rat (Maxomys pagensis) is confined to Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara and Pagai Selatan.
The Mentawai rat (Rattus lugens) is known only from a few specimens collected at the beginning of the twentieth century from Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara and Pagai Selatan.
The golden-bellied tree shrew (Tupaia chrysogaster) is confined to Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara and Pagai Selatan.
The Mentawai pencil-tailed tree mouse (Chiropodomys karlkoopmani) is known only from Siberut and Pagai Utara.
Siberut
Siberut is the largest and northernmost of the Mentawai Islands. Much of the island remains forested despite being subject to commercial logging. In 1993 the western half of the island was set aside as Siberut National Park.
The Siberut macaque (Macaca siberu) is confined to Siberut.
The Siberut pig-tailed langur (Simias concolor siberu) is confined to Siberut, where it is highly threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
Sipora
Sipora is located south of Siberut. The most developed of the Mentawai Islands, only some 10–15 per cent of its original rainforest cover remains.
The Sipora flying squirrel (Hylopetes sipora) is littleknown but believed to be threatened by deforestation.
The Pagai Islands are the southernmost of the Mentawai Islands. They consist of Pagai Utara (North Pagai) and Pagai Selatan (South Pagai), which are only separated by a narrow channel.
The short-headed leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros breviceps) is known only from its original collection in 1941 from Pagai Utara.
Enggano
Enggano (Pulau Enggano in Indonesian) lies about 100 km south-west of Sumatra. The forests of this remote and biologically interesting island, which was likely never connected to the Sumatran mainland, have been almost completely destroyed. The Indonesian government has recently proposed it as the possible location for a spaceport.
Two species of rat (Rattus) were historically endemic to Enggano, but have most likely been driven to extinction by introduced black rats (R. rattus). Miller’s rat (R. enganus) is known only from the holotype collected during the nineteenth century. The burnished rat (R. adustus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1940. Surveys of the island in the late 1980s failed to find evidence of either species.
The Enggano scops owl (Otus enganensis) is a rare species confined to Enggano.
The Enggano imperial pigeon (Ducula oenothorax) is confined to Enggano.
The Enggano hill myna (Gracula enganensis) is confined to Enganno.
The Enggano thrush (Zoothera leucolaema) is confined to Enganno, where it remains relatively common.
The Enggano rat snake (Coelognathus enganensis) has not been recorded since it was first collected in the 1930s, despite repeated surveys.
Bangka
Bangka (Pulau Bangka in Indonesian) is a large island off the south-eastern coast of Sumatra. Most of the original forest has been converted into oil palm plantations.
The Bangka binturong (Arctictis binturong kerkhoveni) is a large viverrid confined to Bangka Island.
The Bangka slow loris (Nycticebus bancanus) is a small, nocturnal prosimian known only from Bangka, where it was last recorded in 1937. It is likely extinct due to habitat destruction, although the species may occur on neighbouring Belitung.
The Bangka shrew (Crocidura vosmaeri) is a little-known species confined to the island’s remaining forests.
Two species of gourami, the Koba betta (Betta chloropharynx) and the Bikang betta (B. burdigala), are confined to peat swamp forest fragments in southern Bangka, where they are seriously threatened by habitat destruction.
The Bangka airbreathing catfish (Encheloclarias tapeinopterus) is confined to peat swamps in eastern Bangka.
Belitung
Belitung (Pulau Belitung in Indonesian/known as Billiton in English) is located south-east of Bangka. It has undergone extensive deforestation and very little habitat remains.
The Belitung tarsier (Cephalopachus bancanus saltator) is confined to Belitung.
The Belitung reed snake (Calamaria javanica) is known only from three specimens collected in 1891 on Belitung, and one other of doubtful provenance (‘Java’).
The Belitung caecilian (Ichthyophis billitonensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1960s.
The Natuna Islands
The Natuna Islands are a 272-island archipelago located between peninsular Malaysia and the north-western coast of Borneo.
The Natuna silvered langur (Trachypithecus cristatus vigilans) is confined to the Natuna Islands.
The Natuna crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela natunensis) is confined to the Natuna Islands.
Great Natuna Island
Great Natuna Island (Pulau Natuna Besar in Indonesian; also known as Bunguran) is the largest of the Natuna Islands.
The Great Natuna surili (Presbytis natunae) is a type of leaf-eating monkey confined to Great Natuna Island, where it is highly threatened by loss of habitat due to logging.
The Great Natuna dwarf litter frog (Leptobrachella natunae) is known only from its original collection in 1895.
The Great Natuna sticky frog (Kalophrynus bunguranus) is known only from a few specimens.
Serasan
Serasan Island (Pulau Serasan in Indonesian) is a large island located in the southern Natuna Islands.
The Natuna Islands tarsier (Cephalopachus bancanus natunensis) is a type of nocturnal primate known only from Serasan Island and possibly nearby Subi Island.
Borneo
Borneo (Pulau Borneo in Malay/Kalimantan in Indonesian) is the third largest island in the world and the largest in Asia. Straddling the equator, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi and east of Sumatra. Politically speaking the island is divided between Malaysia in the north and north-west and Indonesia in the south and south-east. The Malaysian portion is subdivided into three states (Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah), while the Indonesian part is comprised of five provinces (Kalimantan Barat, Kalimantan Tengah, Kalimantan Selatan, Kalimantan Timur, and Kalimantan Utara).
The Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) was long thought to be a population of feral descendants of elephants introduced in previous centuries. Genetic evidence, however, now suggests that they may be indigenous to the island. In any case the form is confined to northern and north-eastern Borneo, where the total population is estimated in the low thousands.
The eastern two-horned rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni) was once common throughout Borneo. Today it is thought that no more than 15 individuals still survive in eastern Borneo (Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia), with a few more perhaps in northern Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia).
Several species and subspecies of gibbon (Hylobates) endemic to Borneo are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The Bornean white-bearded gibbon (H. albibarbis) is confined to south-western Borneo south of the Kapuas River and west of the Barito River. The grey gibbon (H. muelleri) is usually divided into three subspecies, although some scientists consider the latter to be distinct species. Müller’s grey gibbon (H. m. muelleri) is confined to southeastern Borneo, roughly from south of the Mahakam River and east of the Barito River. Abbott’s grey gibbon (H. m. abbottii) is confined to western Borneo north of the Kapuas River (Sarawak, Malaysia and Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire’s grey gibbon (H. m. funereus) is confined to north-eastern Borneo.
The proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus), so-named for the adult male’s distinctive outsized nose, was historically found in lowland forest, always near water, over the whole of coastal Borneo as well as on the satellite islands of Berhala, Sebatik, and Laut. Two rather ill-defined subspecies are recognized. The stripe-naped proboscis monkey (N. l. larvatus) is by far the more widespread, while the plain-naped proboscis monkey (N. l. orientalis) is confined to north-eastern Kalimantan. Ongoing hunting and habitat destruction have decimated both populations over the past few decades.
Several species and subspecies of surili (Presbytis) endemic to Borneo are threatened by loss of habitat as well as by hunting for use as food and in ‘traditional medicine’. The cross-marked surili (P. chrysomelas), historically common, is now among the world’s rarest primates. Two subspecies are normally recognized. The western cross-marked surili (P. c. chrysomelas) is confined to a few localities in western Brunei, western Sarawak (Malaysia) and western Kalimantan Barat (Indonesia). The eastern cross-marked surili (P. c. cruciger) is confined to a few localities in north-eastern Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia. The maroon surili (P. rubicunda) is divided into several subspecies collectively found throughout much of Borneo. Müller’s maroon surili (P. r. rubicunda) is found in south-eastern Borneo (Kalimantan Selatan), roughly east of the Barito River and south of the Mahakam River. The orange-backed maroon surili (P. r. chrysea) is confined to a small area of northern Borneo (eastern Sabah, Malaysia). Lyon’s maroon surili (P. r. rubida) is found in south-western Borneo, roughly south of the Kapuas River and west of the Barito River. The orange-naped maroon surili (P. r. ignita) is found in northern and western Borneo, roughly between the Kapuas and Baram rivers. The whitefronted surili (P. frontata) is found patchily in central and eastern Borneo, with a few additional populations in the west. Hose’s surili (P. hosei) is found in northern Borneo, where it is divided into two subspecies. The Niah Hose’s surili (P. h. hosei) appears to be confined to a small strip of forest along the lower Baram River in coastal Sarawak, Malaysia, where it is completely isolated by oil palm plantations. The Brunei Hose’s surili (P. h. everetti) is found in Brunei, Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan Utara (Indonesia). Miller’s surili (P. canicrus) is confined to an area of eastern Borneo (Kalimantan Utara and Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia). The Sabah surili (P. sabana) is confined to far north-eastern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia).
The Bornean tarsier (Cephalopachus bancanus borneanus) is a type of nocturnal primate found throughout Borneo and the Karimata Islands, but is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat, collection for the pet trade, and persecution in the false belief that it is an agricultural pest.
The Bornean slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) is a small, nocturnal prosimian that, as a species, is widespread throughout Borneo and a few neighbouring islands. Three subspecies are recognized, which some scientists consider to be distinct species. The north Bornean slow loris (N. m. menagensis) is found in northern and eastern Borneo as well as on a few of the smaller islands of the Sulu Archipelago. The Kayan slow loris (N. m. kayan) is found in northern and central Borneo, while the south Bornean slow loris (N. m. borneanus) is found in central and south-western Borneo. All are threatened by loss of habitat and collection for use as pets.
The Bornean clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi borneensis) is relatively widespread in Borneo but is everywhere rare and threatened by loss of habitat.
The Bornean banteng (Bos javanicus lowi) is a type of wild cattle found disjunctly throughout Borneo.
The Bornean sambar deer (Rusa unicolor brookei) is confined to Borneo.
Hose’s palm civet (Diplogale hosei) is a cryptic and elusive species from northern and central Borneo, where it was long known only from a small number of museum specimens. In 1997 the first living specimen was obtained, and released after 2 months.
The Bornean ferret-badger (Melogale everetti) is only known for certain from a small area of far northern Borneo (north-western Sabah).
The tufted ground squirrel (Rheithrosciurus macrotis) is widespread in Borneo but is everywhere threatened by habitat destruction and trapping.
The striped tree shrew (Tupaia dorsalis) is widely distributed within the rainforests of north-central Borneo, but is still known only from a few specimens and appears to be everywhere rare.
The coppery pipistrelle bat (Arielulus cuprosus) is known only from a few scattered localities in northern and western Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia).
Hartert’s frogmouth (Batrachostomus harterti) is a nocturnal, nightjar-like species known only from specimens collected from four localities in west-central Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia and Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia).
Bulwer’s pheasant (Lophura bulweri) was historically common throughout Borneo, particularly in the more remote areas of the interior, but has undergone a significant decline in recent decades due to loss of habitat and hunting.
The blue-wattled bulbul (Brachypodius nieuwenhuisii) is a type of passerine bird divided into two naturally rare subspecies. The Bornean blue-wattled bulbul (B. n. nieuwenhuisii) is known only from a single specimen collected in north-eastern Kalimantan in 1900, along with a few other sight records in more recent years from from Brunei.
The blue-headed pitta (Hydrornis baudii) is a passerine bird still found widely, although patchily, throughout Borneo. It has suffered significant declines due to loss of habitat, particularly in the lowland primary rainforests that it prefers.
The Baram false cobra (Pseudoxenodon baramensis) is known only from a few specimens collected in northern Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia).
The Arqus keelback (Hebius arqus) is a type of snake known only from a single specimen, believed to have been collected in south-western Borneo (Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). The bridled keelback (H. frenatum) is known only from two localities in north-western Borneo (central Sarawak, Malaysia).
Battersby’s reed snake (Calamaria battersbyi) is known only from a single specimen collected during the 1960s from an imprecise locality in south-western Borneo (Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). Lumholtz’s reed snake (C. lumholtzi) is known only from three specimens collected from three widely separated localities in east-central Borneo.
The Mulu flathead toad (Pelophryne api) is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park in Borneo (northern Sarawak).
The masked gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus angulirostris) is largely confined to the Crocker Range and Mount Kinabalu National Park in northern Borneo (northern Sabah, Malaysia), with another small population known from central Borneo (Kalimantan Timur and Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia).
The Kerangas shrub frog (Philautus kerangae) is known only from two widely separated areas of northern Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia), specifically Gunung Mulu National Park and Santubong National Park. The Lanjak shrub frog (P. refugii) is known only from a few scattered localities in western Borneo (south-western Sarawak, Malaysia). The Mendolong shrub frog (P. aurantium) is known only from a few localities in far northern Borneo (western Sabah, Malaysia). All are threatened by loss of habitat.
The small rock frog (Staurois parvus) is known only from a few localities in northern Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia and Brunei).
The Kinabalu dwarf litter frog (Leptobrachella arayai) is confined to a few localities in far northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia). The striped dwarf litter frog (L. serasanae) has a highly disjunct distribution in west-central Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia) and on Serasan Island off the south-western coast of Borneo.
The Metang caecilian (Ichthyophis biangularis) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1872 from Mount Metang in Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia). It was rediscovered at the same locality in 2009.
The Central Highlands
The Central Highlands stretch throughout the central interior of Borneo, with additional outlying mountains as well. They are among the highest in South East Asia and provide a habitat refuge for many species.
The sculptor squirrel (Glyphotes simus) is confined to the mountains of northern Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia).
The Bornean smooth-tailed treeshrew (Dendrogale melanura) is divided into two subspecies. The Sarawak smoothtailed treeshrew (D. m. melanura) is known from a few localities in northern Sarawak (Mount Dulit, Mount Mulu, and the Kelabit Highlands). The Sabah smooth-tailed treeshrew (D. m. baluensis) is known from Mount Kinabalu and Mount Trus Madi. Neither has been recorded since the early 1970s.
The grey-bellied pencil-tailed tree mouse (Chiropodomys muroides) is known only from a few specimens collected from Mount Kinabalu in northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia) and at another locality in eastern Borneo (Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia).
The Bornean water shrew (Chimarrogale phaeura) is a semi-aquatic species that is only definitely known from the mountains of far northern Borneo (western Sabah, Malaysia), but may occur in suitable areas further south as well.
Cox’s leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros coxi) is known from a few localities in northern and western Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia).
The Bornean serpent-eagle (Spilornis kinabaluensis) is a rare species confined to the mountains of northern and central Borneo.
Hose’s partridge (Rhizothera dulitensis) is known only from specimens collected during the nineteenth century from Mount Dulit and Mount Batu Song in Sarawak and from Mount Kinabalu in Sabah. The species has not been positively recorded since 1937, although the areas where it lives have been little surveyed.
Guibe’s stream toad (Ansonia guibei) is confined to Mount Kinabalu and Mount Trusmadi in far northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia). Its habitat within the former locality may have been largely or entirely destroyed by landslides in 2015. Inger’s stream toad (A. latidisca) is known only from two localities in western Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia and Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). Last recorded in 1924, it was rediscovered in 2011.
Inger’s shrub frog (Philautus ingeri) is known only from a few localities in northern Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia and Brunei), where it is threatened by loss of habitat. The Muruk Miau shrub frog (P. erythrophthalmus) was long known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Muruk Miau in western Sabah (Malaysia), but has since been discovered at a second locality in southwestern Sabah.
The Crocker Range
The Crocker Range (Banjaran Crocker in Malaysia) is located in northern Borneo (north-western Sabah, Malaysia). It is partially protected within Crocker Range National Park and Kinabalu Park.
Mount Kinabalu (Gunung Kinabalu in Malay) is the fourth highest peak in South East Asia. It and the surrounding region have long been protected within Mount Kinabalu National Park, a World Heritage Site.
The black pygmy white-toothed shrew (Suncus ater) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Kinabalu in the 1960s.
The Kinabalu water snake (Hydrablabes praefrontalis) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Kinabalu in the 1890s.
The white-striped reed snake (Calamaria lateralis) is known only from two specimens collected from Mount Kinabalu in the late nineteenth century.
The Kinabalu giant blind snake (Anomochilus monticola) is known only from three specimens collected on Mount Kinabalu.
The Kinabalu stream toad (Ansonia fuliginea) is confined to Mount Kinabalu.
The Kinabalu shrub frog (Philautus gunungensis), Kamboranga shrub frog (P. amoenus), and Sauer’s shrub frog (P. saueri) are all confined to Mount Kinabalu.
The Kinabalu large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium gunungense) is confined to Mount Kinabalu.
The Tama Abu Range
The Tama Abu Range is located in northern Borneo (northeastern Sarawak, Malaysia).
Mount Mulu (Gunung Mulu in Malay) is protected within the boundaries of Gunung Mulu National Park, a World Heritage Site.
The raspy shrub frog (Philautus acutus) and the pinnacle shrub frog (P. umbra) are both confined to submontane and montane forest on Mount Mulu.
Dring’s dwarf litter frog (Leptobrachella brevicrus) is confined to Mount Mulu.
The Kelabit Highlands
The Kelabit Highlands are a vast highland plateau in northern Borneo (north-eastern Sarawak, Malaysia).
The Eok sticky frog (Kalophrynus eok) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Kelabit Highlands.
Mount Murud (Gunung Murud in Malay) is the highest mountain in Sarawak.
The Linanit flathead toad (Pelophryne linanitensis) and Murud flathead toad (P. murudensis) are both confined to Mount Murud.
The green-eyed tree frog (Polypedates chlorophthalmus) is known only from Mount Murud.
Mount Dulit
Mount Dulit (Gunung Dulit in Malay) is located in northern Borneo (north-central Sarawak, Malaysia). A western outlier of the Central Highlands, it is still largely covered with tropical rainforest.
The Dulit caecilian (Ichthyophis dulitensis) is confined to Mount Dulit.
Lowland Rainforests and Swamp Forests
The still considerable lowland rainforests of Borneo are among the oldest and most biologically important in the world. They consist mainly of primary and peat swamp forest, as well as Sundaland heath forest (also known as Kerangas forest), a type of lowland forest found on Borneo as well as the islands of Bangka and Belitung. The latter is characterized by a low, uniform canopy with thick underbrush and a rich growth of moss and epiphytes. All are threatened by massive deforestation due to logging, expansion of oil palm plantations and fires.
The Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is a lowland forest specialist, rarely being found above 500 m. As a result of the enormous loss of these forests since the mid-twentieth century the species – along with its three subspecies, the north-west Bornean orangutan (P. p. pygmaeus), the northeast Bornean orangutan (P. p. morio) , and the south-west Bornean orangutan (P. p wurmbii) – has become seriously threatened. It is also illegally traded for use as pets, a practice with an inherently high mortality rate (i.e. the mother is usually shot in order to obtain the young, with a high percentage of the latter succumbing to mistreatment).
The Bornean sun bear (Helarctos malayanus euryspilus) was once found throughout the island’s lowland rainforests, but has been eliminated from many areas.
The Bornean bay cat (Catopuma badia), one of the world’s least-known wild cats, is found throughout the lowland, swamp and hill forests of Borneo but is rarely encountered. It is frequently trapped for its skin as well as for use in the international pet trade.
The Bornean binturong (Arctictis binturong pageli) is large and little-known viverrid from the lowland rainforests of Borneo.
The lesser pygmy flying squirrel (Petaurillus emiliae) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1901 from northern Sarawak (Malaysia). It was rediscovered in 2013 from a second locality in western Borneo (Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). Hose’s pygmy flying squirrel (P. hosei) is known only from a few specimens collected over a small area of northern Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia and Brunei).
The Bornean tree rat (Pithecheirops otion) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Danum Valley of northern Borneo (north-eastern Sabah, Malaysia).
Margaret’s ranee mouse (Haeromys margarettae) is known only from two old historical collections from two, widely separated localities in northern Sabah and south-western Sarawak.
The Bornean peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron schleiermacheri) is a rare and elusive species found sporadically in dense lowland forests throughout the island.
The Bornean crestless fireback pheasant (Lophura pyronota) is found widely but patchily throughout Borneo, where it is notably rare and localized. The Bornean crested fireback pheasant (L. ignita) is divided into two subspecies. The lesser Bornean crested fireback pheasant (L. i. ignita), and the greater Bornean crested fireback pheasant (L. i. nobilis) are both threatened by loss of habitat and hunting.
Graydon’s chestnut-necklaced partridge (Tropicoperdix charltonii graydoni) is confined to a small area of northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia).
The black-browed babbler (Malacocincla perspicillata) is a mysterious passerine bird, which, for 170 years, was known only from a single specimen collected from southern Borneo (Kalimantan Selatan, Indonesia). The species was thought to be extinct, an early victim of habitat destruction, until the unexpected discovery of a second specimen within the same province in 2020.
The Bornean wren-babbler (Ptilocichla leucogrammica) remains widespread across the lowland forests of Borneo, but is generally rare and localized.
The earless monitor (Lanthanotus borneensis) is a rare semi-aquatic lizard known only from northern Borneo in Sarawak (Malaysia) and from Kalimantan Utara and Kalimantan Timur (Indonesia).
The Bornean spinejaw snake (Xenophidion acanthognathus) is known only from two disjunct localities in northern and western Sabah (Malaysia).
Rebentisch’s reed snake (Calamaria rebentischi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1860 from coastal western Borneo (Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). With virtually no forest habitat now remaining in the area, the species is almost certainly extinct. Prakke’s reed snake (C. prakkei) is known only from its original collection in 1983 from Sandakan Bay in coastal northern Borneo (north-western Sabah, Malaysia). Habitat in the area has since been destroyed, and the species is most likely extinct. The slender reed snake (C. gracilima) is known only from four specimens collected from south-western Sarawak (Malaysia).
The Engkari pipe snake (Cylindrophis enkariensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in southern Sarawak (Malaysia).
The Akah River flathead toad (Pelophryne macrotis) is known only from a single specimen collected during the late nineteenth century from an imprecise locality in Sarawak (Malaysia). Günther’s flathead toad (P. guentheri) is known only from a few specimens collected over a wide area of Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia). The Sarawak flathead toad (P. rhopophilia) is known only from two disjunct localities in northeastern and south-western Sarawak (Malaysia). All are presumably threatened by loss of habitat.
The Gunung Gading gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus gadingensis) is known only from two protected areas in coastal south-western Sarawak (Malaysia).
The disparate shrub frog (Philautus disgregus) is known only from three disjunct areas of eastern Sabah and western Sarawak (Malaysia), where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The Kenepai wart frog (Limnonectes kenepaiensis) is confined to a few localities in western Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia and Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia).
The large-eyed torrent frog (Meristogenys macrophthalmus) is known only from a single specimen collected in central Sarawak (Malaysia). The Matang torrent frog (M. jerboa) is known only from a small area of south-western Sarawak (Malaysia).
The Sabah rice frog (Microhyla maculifera) is known only from the Danum Valley Conservation Area in northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia).
The Lipaso dwarf litter frog (Leptobrachella palmata) is confined to a small area of northern Borneo (northcentral Sabah).
Smith’s balloon frog (Glyphoglossus smithi) is known only from two or three disjunct areas of Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia.
The Mahakkam caecilian (Ichthyophis asplenius) is known only from two localities in south-western Sarawak (Malaysia). The black caecilian (I. monochrous) is known only from a few specimens collected from three widely separated localities in western Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia and Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). The Long Bloee caecilian (I. atricollaris) is known only from a few specimens collected during the 1960s from northern Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia).
Isolated Caves, Springs, and Pools
Borneo has a number of significant cave systems, primary in the northern and eastern parts of the island. Clearwater Cave in Sarawak features one of the world’s longest underground rivers, while Deer Cave is home to over three million bats, their guano having accumulated over 100 m deep. The Niah Caves in Sarawak is an important prehistoric site where c.40,000-year-old human remains along with paintings and implements have been discovered. Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak, also in Sarawak, and the Sangkulirang- Mangkalihat Karst in eastern Borneo (Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia) both contain thousands of smaller caves.
The cave bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus cavernicolus) is known only from the Niah and Mulu cave systems in northeastern Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia).
Lakes, Rivers and Marshes
Borneo has several major river systems and still extensive areas of peat swamp forest, although few lakes.
The aquatic flat-headed toad (Barbourula kalimantanensis) is a fully aquatic, lungless species known only from a few localities in west-central Borneo (Kalimantan Barat and Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia). It is threatened by habitat destruction and pollution.
Schlueter’s frog (Fejervarya schlueteri) is known only from a single specimen collected during the nineteenth century from an unspecified locality in Borneo.
Hose’s barb (Leptobarbus hosii) is confined to a few rivers in northern Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia).
The spotfin betta (Betta macrostoma) is confined to a small area of northern Borneo (Brunei and northern Sarawak, Malaysia). Chin’s betta (B. chini) is confined to peat swamps and hillstreams in in northern Borneo (western Sabah (Malaysia). Both are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international aquarium trade.
The Sarawak airbreathing catfish (Encheloclarias prolatus) is known only from an unspecified peat swamp locality in northern Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia).
The Sabah loach (Protomyzon borneensis) is found patchily in northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
The Sabah stone loach (Sundoreonectes sabanus) is known only from a small area of north-eastern Borneo (western Sabah, Malaysia).
The Rajang River
The Rajang River (Batang Rajang in Malay) is located in northern Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia, as well as Brunei).
The Rajang sharkminnow (Osteochilus sarawakensis) is known only from the Rajang River.
The Kinabatangan River
The Kinabatangan River (Sungai Kinabatangan in Malay) is located in north-eastern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia).
The Bornean river shark (Glyphis fowlerae) is known only from 13 specimens collected from the Kinabatangan River in 1996. More recent expeditions failed to find any, and the species has not been seen by local fishermen for many years.
The dwarf horsefaced loach (Acantopsis octoactinotos) is confined to the Kinabatangan River. It is a relatively common aquarium fish.
The Kayan River
The Kayan River is located in north-eastern coastal Borneo (Kalimantan Utara, Indonesia).
The Bulungan sheatfish (Kryptopterus lumholtzi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1914 from the Kayan River drainage.
The Mahakam River
The Mahakam River (Sungai Mahakam in Indonesian) is located in eastern Borneo (Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia).
The Mahakam spineless eel (Chendol lubricus) is confined to the Mahakam River drainage.
The Kapuas River
The Kapuas River (Sungai Kapuas in Indonesian) is the longest river in Indonesia. It originates in the highlands of central Borneo and flows west through Kalimantan Barat (Indonesia) into the South China Sea, in the process creating an extended marshy delta. In recent years gold mining in the river has significantly increased environmental disturbances, in particular mercury pollution.
The Kapuas water snake (Enhydris gyii) is known only from three specimens collected from the Kapuas River.
Valliant’s chocolate gourami (Sphaerichthys vaillanti) is confined to the Kapuas River drainage.
The Kapuas betta (Betta pinguis) is confined to forest streams in the middle Kapuas River drainage.
Myers’ bumblebee catfish (Pseudomystus myersi) is confined to the Kapuas River drainage.
The Kapuas stream catfish (Acrochordonichthys chamaeleon) is confined to the Kapuas River drainage.
The Pinoh River is located in west-central Borneo (Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia).
The Pinoh rasbora (Rasbora ennealepis) is confined to tributaries of the Pinoh River.
The Sibau River
The Sibau River (Sungai Sibau in Indonesian) is located in south-western Borneo (Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia).
The Kalimantan sea snake (Hydrophis sibauensis) is known only from three specimens collected within a swampy area of the Sibau River, more than 1000 km upriver from the coast.
The Karimata Islands
The Karimata Islands are a group of small islands located off the south-western coast of Indonesian Borneo.
The Karimata maroon surili (Presbytis rubicunda carimatae) appears to be confined to the main island (Pulau Karimata) in the Karimata Islands.
Miang
Miang (Pulau Miang in Indonesian) is located off the eastern coast of Borneo (Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia).
Werner’s skink (Lipinia miangensis) is known only from Miang Island.
Lorenz’s blind snake (Ramphotyphlops lorenzi) is known only from Miang Island, where it was last recorded in 1909.
Maratua
Maratua (Pulau Maratua in Indonesian) is one of the Derawan Islands located off the eastern coast of Borneo.
The Maratua long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis tua) is confined to Maratua.
Bunyu
Bunyu (Pulau Bunyu in Indonesian) is located off the northeastern coast of Borneo in the eastern Celebes Sea.
Koekkoek’s blind snake (Malayotyphlops koekkoeki) is known only from Bunyu Island. An additional record from northern Sarawak is almost certainly a misidentification.
Java
Java (Jawa in Indonesian) is a large, volcanically active island located south of Sumatra and Borneo. With a current figure of over 140 million people, it is the world’s most densely populated. This staggering increase from just three or four million in 1800 has led to massive forest loss and heavy industrialization, and there is not much left of the original environment. Most of the larger animals have already been exterminated, among them tigers and Asian elephants.
The Sundaic lesser one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus), previous discussed in this chapter and now better known simply as the Javan rhinoceros, was historically found on both Java and Sumatra. Since the 1930s, however, it has been entirely restricted to the lowland rainforest of the Ujung Kulon Peninsula in far western Java (Banten province), where the total population has remained stable at between 30 and 65.
Wild, pure-bred populations of the Javan banteng (Bos javanicus javanicus), a type of wild cattle, are confined to a few protected areas on Java and, perhaps, Bali. The most important strongholds are in Ujung Kulon National Park in western Java (Banten province) and in Baluran National Park (Jawa Timur province). Other bantengs in Java are hybrids cross-bred with domestic cattle.
The Javan tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica) was historically numerous throughout the island. By the 1940s it had been eliminated from most areas, including the important Ujung Kulon and Baluran reserves, and by 1972 only five individuals were thought to remain. It was last positively recorded in 1976 in Meru Betiri National Park in eastern Java (Jawa Timur province). The subspecies has since been declared extinct, a victim of hunting and forest loss.
The Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas) is thought to be present in most forested regions of the island, although in very low numbers.
The Javan or silvery gibbon (Hylobates moloch) was historically found throughout the island in both lowland and montane rainforest, but has been reduced to a few scattered patches mainly in protected areas. The largest viable population, about 1000, lives in the still extensive rainforests of Mount Halimun Salak National Park in western Java (Banten and Jawa Barat provinces).
The Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus) is a type of leafeating monkey found throughout Java as well as on Bali and a few other smaller islands. There are two subspecies. The eastern Javan langur (T. a. auratus) occurs on eastern Java, Bali, Sempu, and Nusa Barong, with an additional introduced population on Lombok. The western Javan langur (T. a. mauritius) is confined to western Java. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
The Javan surili (Presbytis comata) is confined to a few pockets in western and central Java.
The Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus) is a small, nocturnal prosimian found patchily in western and central Java, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and collection for the pet trade as well as use in ‘traditional medicine’.
The Javan warty pig (Sus verrucosus) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (S. v. verrucosus) was historically found throughout Java and Madura, but has been extirpated from the latter island and is now found only in a few scattered pockets on the former.
The Sunda rusa deer (Rusa timorensis) is believed to be native only to Java and Bali, but has been introduced to many other islands of the Indo-Pacific region. The Javan rusa deer (R. t. russa) is confined to a few scattered pockets across the island, where it is threatened by hunting and snaring even within protected areas.
The red tree rat (Pithecheir melanurus) is known only from a small area of western Java (Jawa Barat province).
The Javan giant rat (Sundamys maxi) is known only from two localities in western Java (Jawa Barat province).
Sorensen’s leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros sorenseni) is known only from a single cave in south-western coastal Java (Jawa Barat province).
The Madura horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus madurensis) is known only from seven specimens collected from Madura and the Kangean Islands. Canut’s horseshoe bat (R. canuti) is known only from a few scattered localities on Java, Bali and the island of Nusa Barong, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The pungent pipistrelle bat (Falsistrellus mordax) appears to be known only from nineteenth-century historical records from an undefined locality or localities on Java.
The Javan hawk-eagle (Nisaetus bartelsi) is a rare species confined to forest patches scattered throughout Java.
The white-faced partridge (Arborophila orientalis) is known only from a few localities in eastern Java (Jawa Timur province), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
Three starlings of the genus Acridotheres endemic to Java are seriously threatened by loss of habitat and capture for the cagebird trade. The black-winged myna (A. melanopterus) was historically common in western and central Java and on Madura, but is now virtually extinct in the wild. The grey-backed myna (A. tricolor) was formerly found throughout eastern Java, but now appears to be confined to the Meru Betiri and Baluran national parks. The white-vented myna (A. javanicus) is naturally found only on Java and Bali, but populations have been introduced to Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand, Sumatra, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Puerto Rico and possibly Japan.
The Javan green magpie (Cissa thalassina) is a very rare species now known only from four protected areas in western and central Java, where the total population likely numbers fewer than 250. The species has suffered serious declines due to habitat destruction and capture for the cage-bird trade.
Horsfield’s flameback (Chrysocolaptes strictus) is a rare type of woodpecker confined to eastern Java, Bali and the Kangean Islands.
The white-rumped woodpecker (Meiglyptes tristis) is a rare species confined to western Java (Banten, Jawa Barat and Jawa Tengah provinces), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Javan blue-banded kingfisher (Alcedo euryzona) has, since the 1930s, been recorded only from the region of Mount Halimun in western Java (Banten and Jawa Barat provinces).
The Javan finch (Padda oryzivora) is native to Java, Bali and probably Madura, where it was at one time abundant but has undergone a massive population decline in recent decades due to uncontrolled trapping for the cage-bird trade. The species has, however, been widely introduced in many parts of the world.
Underwood’s bronzeback tree snake (Dendrelaphis underwoodi) is known only from three specimens collected from plantations in western Java (Jawa Barat province).
The Javan keelback (Rhabdophis chrysargoides) is a type of snake known only from a few specimens collected from mostly undefined localities.
Bernis’ caecilian (Ichthyophis bernisi) and Taylor’s caecilian (I. javanicus) are each known only from a single specimen collected from an undefined locality in Java.
The Javan Volcanic Chain
Java was formed mainly by volcanic processes, with a chain of 31 active volcanoes and other mountains forming an east–west spine along the length of the island. Some of these still have some or all of their original cover of rainforest, providing a refuge for wildlife.
The Javan scops owl (Otus angelinae) is found patchily throughout the Javan Volcanic Chain, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Javan blue-tailed trogon (Apalharpactes reinwardtii) is confined to a few forested mountains in western Java (Banten and Jawa Barat provinces), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and possibly trapping.
The Javan cochoa (Cochoa azurea) is a type of thrush confined to a few montane forest localities in western and central Java.
The rufous-fronted laughingthrush (Garrulax rufifrons) was historically common within the mountains of western and central Java, but is now seriously threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the cage-bird trade. All known wild populations are of the nominate subspecies (G. r. rufifrons).
The bleeding toad (Leptophryne cruentata) is confined to a few montane localities in western and central Java (Jawa Barat and Jawa Tengah provinces).
Mount Gede Pangrango
Mount Gede Pangrango (Gunung Gede Pangrango in Indonesian) is a stratovolcano located in western Java (Jawa Barat province) containing two peaks (known as Mount Gede and Mount Pangrango). The area is protected within Mount Gede Pangrango National Park.
The Javan bamboo rat (Kadarsanomys sodyi) is known only from a single collection on Gede Pangrango in the 1930s.
Bartels’ flying squirrel (Hylopetes bartelsi) is confined to the forests of Mount Pangrango.
The Javan thick-thumbed bat (Glischropus javanus) is known only from a few specimens collected nearly 70 years apart on Mount Pangrango.
Barbour’s shrub frog (Philautus pallidipes) is known only from three specimens collected from Mount Pangrango in the early twentieth century.
Mount Ungaran
Mount Ungaran (Gunung Ungaran in Indonesian) is a deeply eroded stratovolcano located in central Java (Jawa Tengah province).
Jacobson’s shrub frog (Philautus jacobsoni) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1912. All habitat from which it was obtained has now been completely deforested, and the species is likely extinct.
Mount Slamet
Mount Slamet (Gunung Slamet in Indonesian) is an active stratovolcano located in central Java (Jawa Tengah province).
The Slamet rufous-fronted laughingthrush (Garrulax rufifrons slamatensis) was historically confined to Mount Slamet, where it has not been seen since 1925. A small captive population persisted up into the twenty-first century, although by 2018 only a single female remained.
Mount Semeru
Mount Semeru (Gunung Semeru in Indonesian) is an active volcano located in eastern Java (Jawa Timur province).
Fruhstorfer’s mountain snake (Tetralepis fruhstorferi) is known only from Mount Semeru.
Lowland Rainforests
On Java most forest below 1000 m, and in some areas up to 1500 m, has already been destroyed. Habitat destruction and degradation is driven primarily by agricultural expansion, logging, mining, development and uncontrolled fire, even within protected areas. The Ujung Kulon Peninsula, the westernmost tip of Java, has long contained the last remaining substantial areas of lowland rainforest on the island. The devastating 1883 eruption of the nearby island of Krakatoa and its resulting tsunami wiped out many settlements in the area and they were never repopulated. It was declared a national park in 1921 and harbours many highly threatened species. Outside Ujung Kulon only small fragments of lowland rainforest still exist.
The Javan mastiff bat (Otomops formosus) is known only from four specimens collected in 1939 and in 1990 from western Java (Banten and Jawa Barat provinces).
The Bantam caecilian (Ichthyophis hypocyaneus) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1927 from western Java (Banten province). It was rediscovered in 2000 and is now known from three disjunct localities in Jawa Barat and Jawa Tengah provinces, and from some old museum specimens.
Lakes, Rivers and Marshes
Java is relatively poor in lakes and rivers, with rice fields serving as the most important wetland areas.
The Javan lapwing (Vanellus macropterus) was a large, long-legged wading bird known for certain only from a few marshes and river deltas on the north-western and southeastern coasts of Java, although the species may have historically occurred on Sumatra, Timor and/or Belitung as well. On Java it appears always to have been rare. Last recorded in 1940, it is most likely extinct, although it is possible that it may survive in remote areas.
Bali
The fabled island of Bali (Pulau Bali in Indonesian) lies just east of Java, on the western end of the Lesser Sunda Islands. Its central mountains include several peaks over 2000 m in elevation, the highest of which (Mount Agung) is an active volcano. At one time heavily forested, up until the early twentieth century it was home to a number of large mammals including the now extinct Bali tiger (see below), wild Javan bantengs (Bos javanicus javanicus), and Javan leopards (Panthera pardus melas). The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, but the leopard has long-since been extirpated.
Up until the First World War The Bali tiger (Panthera tigris balica) was still rather common, but declined rapidly thereafter due to hunting and loss of habitat. The last definite record dates from 1937, when one was shot in the west of the island. Bali Barat National Park was established in 1941 for its protection, but it is likely that the subspecies became extinct by the end of World War II or possibly as late as the early 1950s. This was the smallest and least-known of the tigers, and was never photographed alive or kept in captivity.
The Bali rusa deer (Rusa timorensis renschi) is confined to western Bali.
The Bali myna (Leucopsar rothschildi) is now largely confined to West Bali National Park, with an additional small population on the offshore island of Nusa Penida (which is outside the species’ natural range). A beautiful and charismatic species; despite decades of conservation work it remains on the verge of extinction in the wild due mainly to unsustainable, illegal trapping for the global cage-bird trade. There is a considerable worldwide captive population.
The grey-rumped myna (Acridotheres tertius) was historically found throughout Bali and the offshore islands of Nusa Penida and Nusa Lembongan; records from Lombok almost certainly represent either escapees from the cage-bird trade or vagrants. The species has undergone a significant decline in recent decades due to overcollection, and is now largely confined to Bali Barat National Park.
The Bratan rasbora (Rasbora baliensis) is a type of freshwater fish that may or may not be confined to Lake Bratan, a crater lake located in north-eastern Bali.
Bawean
Bawean (Pulau Bawean in Indonesian) is located approximately 150 km north of eastern Java. The island is hilly and was once covered by rainforest, although most of it was unfortunately replaced during the 1960s by teak plantations. Today, only five small pockets of forest remain, which is protected as the Bawean Nature Reserve.
The Bawean deer (Axis kuhlii) is a small, relic form now confined to hilly areas of the island, although it appears to have once lived on Java as well. Reportedly common during the nineteenth century, it was almost exterminated by hunters during World War II. It recovered rapidly in the 1950s, only to find itself threatened once more in the 1960s and 1970s, this time by deforestation and persecution by locals, who regarded it as a nuisance for the damage it does to plantations. It is now fairly well protected, with a total population of between 250 and 500.
The Bawean warty pig (Sus verrucosus blouchi) is confined to Bawean.
The Bawean crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela baweanus) is confined to Bawean.
The Karimunjawa Islands
The Karimunjawa Islands (Kepulauan Karimunjawa in Indonesian) are located north of Java.
The Karimunjawa long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis karimondjawae) is confined to the Karimunjawa Islands.
The Kangean Islands
The Kangean Islands (Kepulauan Kangean in Indonesian) are located east of Madura in the Java Sea and consist of some 28 small islets, many of which are still uninhabited.
The Kangean tit-babbler (Mixornis prillwitzi) is confined to remaining areas of lowland forest in the Kangean Islands.
The Masalembu Islands
The Masalembu Islands (Kepulauan Mesalembu in Indonesian) are located in the Java Sea to the north ofMadura. The three main islands are Masalembu, Masakambing, and Karamian.
Abbott’s yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea abbotti) is confined to the Masalembu Islands, where it has long been on the verge of extinction. The subspecies appears to have been extirpated from Masalembu in 1987 due to trapping and killing, and only about a dozen individuals were recorded on Masakambing in 2010.
Christmas Island
Located south-west of Java, Christmas Island was uninhabited until the late nineteenth century. The island’s geographic isolation and history of minimal human disturbance had led to high levels of endemism. Large areas of monsoonal forest remain and much of the island has been set aside as a national park, although a wide range of introduced species have unfortunately decimated the native fauna.
Two large rats (Rattus), historically endemic to Christmas Island, have been exterminated. The bulldog rat (R. nativitatis) has not been recorded with certainty since 1897–98. Maclear’s rat (R. macleari) was last observed in 1904, and extensive searches since then have failed to locate it. Both were likely wiped out by competition with introduced black rats (R. rattus) and disease.
The Christmas Island shrew (Crocidura trichura) was described as ‘extremely common’ in 1900, but was already rare in 1909. Since then, there have been only four confirmed records (two individuals in 1958, and another two in 1985), although several unconfirmed reports occurred between 1996 and 1998. There has been nothing since despite intensive survey work, and the species is very likely extinct.
The Christmas Island flying fox (Pteropus melanotus natalis) is confined to the island, where it has undergone significant declines in recent years.
The Christmas Island pipistrelle (Pipistrellus murrayi) was a type of bat historically widespread and common on the island, but it underwent a dramatic decline most likely due to introduced species. Last recorded in 2009, it is now thought to be extinct.
Abbott’s booby (Papasula abbotti), the largest of all booby species, was historically widespread in the Indian Ocean and probably the Pacific as well. Its only known breeding sites, however, were on Assumption Island in the Seychelles (where it was driven extinct by humans around 1936) and on Christmas Island, where it nests in tall emergent trees of the plateau rainforest. Today the population of around 6000 is highly threatened by logging activities.
The Christmas Island frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi) is a type of seabird that breeds only on Christmas Island in four main colonies.
The Christmas Island goshawk (Accipiter fasciatus natalis) was reported to be common all over the island in 1947, but by 1963–64 its numbers had dropped to a low of about 12. The population has since increased to about 100.
The Christmas Island hawk-owl (Ninox natalis) is confined to the island, where the population is thought to be stable.
The Christmas Island thrush (Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus) is historically, and currently, endemic to Christmas Island. During the late nineteenth century it was introduced into the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, but was extirpated from there by the 1980s.
The Christmas Island chained gecko (Lepidodactylus listeri) underwent a massive decline in the late twentieth century due to introduced species, and was last recorded in the wild in 2012. Fortunately, a captive breeding programme has been successful.
The Christmas Island emo skink (Emoia nativitatis) was historically widespread on the island and considered common in 1979. By the 1990s, however, the population plummeted drastically, most likely due to introduced species, and was soon reduced to a few fragmented pockets. A projected captive breeding programme was organized too late, and the last known individual ('Gump') died in 2014. The species is now considered to be extinct.
The Christmas Island blind snake (Ramphotyphlops exocoeti) is known only from a few localities on the island.
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands, located approximately midway between Australia and Sri Lanka, consist of two flat, low-lying coral atolls and 27 coral islands.
The Cocos buff-banded rail (Gallirallus philippensis andrewsi) is now effectively confined to North Keeling Island, although it is still occasionally reported from other islands making up the Southern Atoll. The population is believed to number less than 1000.
The Cocos Islands reed snake (Calamaria lautensis) is known only from three specimens collected on Cocos Island.
Anthropogenic effects on the flora and fauna
Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as ‘Java Man’, suggest that the Sundaic Region was inhabited some 1.5 million years ago. Another species, H. floresiensis, also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which it became extinct. Modern humans (H. sapiens) first reached the region between 70,000 and 50,000 bc, as evidenced by rock art and a skull found within the Niah Caves in northern Borneo. These early migrants would be joined by Austronesian peoples from Taiwan around 2000 bc. During much of this period the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known as Sundaland due to lower sea levels. Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century bc allowed villages, towns and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century ad, and the archipelago’s strategic sea-lane position fostered trade as far away as India and China.
Early European exploration of the region was undertaken by Portuguese mariners. In 1509 Diogo Lopes de Sequeira reached Sumatra and what is now the state of Malacca, on the southern coast of the Malay Peninsula. In 1511–12 Antonio de Abreu sailed through the Strait of Malacca between Sumatra and Bangka, and along the coasts of Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, and Flores to the ‘Spice Islands’ (i.e. the Moluccas). In 1518 Lourenço Gomes reached Borneo. In the following centuries Europeans would establish colonies, with the British on the Malay Peninsula, the Dutch in Indonesia and, for a brief period, the Japanese throughout during World War II. Despite the establishment of large plantations human impact remained minimal. Sadly, the post-colonization period which began during the latter half of the twentieth century has been nothing short of disastrous for the wildlife of this region. A rapid and unsustainable population increase and subsequent spreading of agriculture and shifting cultivation had already begun to significantly decrease the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia, but it was not until 1966, when the forests were opened up to logging companies, that the cataclysmic damage truly began. Singapore, in particular, served as the nexus for a vast international trade in wildlife.
In recent historical time (i.e. since ad 1500), the Sundaic Region has lost at least 12 species/3 subspecies of vertebrates. Among the extinct forms 5 species/2 subspecies are mammals, 2 species/1 subspecies are birds, 4 species are reptiles, and 1 species is an amphibian. Another 4 species are possibly extinct, and 2 species are currently extinct in the wild. In addition, there are 406 species/67 subspecies currently threatened with extinction (that is to say, either Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List, as well as certain forms either listed as Data Deficient or Not Assessed but which are clearly at some risk of extinction). Of these, 134 species/54 subspecies are mammals, 65 species/8 subspecies are birds, 70 species/5 subspecies are reptiles, 84 species are amphibians, and 53 species are freshwater fishes.