The Oriental Region
The Oriental Region includes all of the mainland areas of the Indo-Malaysian Realm along with the islands of Sri Lanka, Hainan, and numerous smaller islands.
Species and subspecies
The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) historically ranged from West Asia along the Iranian coast into the Indian subcontinent and Indochina as far north and east as far as the Yangtze River. They have long been extinct in Iran, Pakistan and most of China, and in serious retreat everywhere else for centuries due to hunting for their ivory and conflict with humans.
The Indian or greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) once ranged across the entire Indo-Gangetic Plain from northern Pakistan to at least the India/Myanmar border and including parts of Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. It may also have existed in Myanmar, southern China and Indochina, although this is uncertain. The species was common in northwestern India and Pakistan until around 1600, but disappeared from this region shortly thereafter. It declined sharply in the remainder of its range between 1600 and 1900 due to excessive hunting and agricultural development, until at last it found itself on the brink of extinction at the beginning of the twentieth century, with less than 200 remaining. Currently it survives only in a few small subpopulations in northern India (West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Assam) and southern Nepal, mainly in remote riverine swamps with tall, dense ‘elephant grass’. While not the rhinos’ preferred habitat (they seem to favour dry forest with open stretches of grassland), these areas have served as a last refuge for the species and are now mostly protected. Numbers have fluctuated and occasionally suffered dramatic declines, mainly due to the illegal settlement of squatters in protected areas, as well as poaching. In 2007 the total was estimated at 2575, with the majority living in Kaziranga National Park (Assam). An attempt to reintroduce a pair into Lal Sohanra National Park, Pakistan in 1983 was unsuccessful. The Asiatic lesser one-horned rhinoceros (R. sondaicus) is divided into three subspecies historically found across South East Asia. The Indochinese lesser one-horned rhinoceros (R. s. annamiticus) was found in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and eastern Thailand. Heavily hunted, it was thought to be extinct until a small population was unexpectedly rediscovered in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam in the 1990s. Sadly, the location of these animals was unwisely made widely known in the press and the subspecies was quickly hunted into certain extinction by poachers. The Indian lesser one-horned rhinoceros (R. s. inermis) was found in north-eastern India (West Bengal), Bangladesh, and Myanmar. It was almost certainly driven to extinction before 1925, although it is just possible that a small number may survive in Myanmar.
The northern two-horned rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis) once occurred in north-eastern India, Bangladesh and Myanmar, but has been declared extinct in these countries. Unconfirmed reports suggest a small population may still survive in northern Myanmar, but the political situation in that country has prevented verification.
The kouprey (Bos sauveli) is (or was) a large, little-known forest ox historically found in Cambodia, southern Laos, south-eastern Thailand, and western Vietnam. Only discovered by science as late as 1937, it was intensively hunted and by the mid-1950s had disappeared from Thailand and Laos but was still found in Vietnam and Cambodia. At the end of the 1960s it was restricted to two areas of open deciduous forest and clearings on either side of the Mekong River in north-eastern Cambodia. Efforts to save the species were long discussed but little came of it, and it appears to have been a victim of the war in Indochina. There have been no confirmed sightings since 1970, but the animals are nocturnal and notably skittish and a few may survive in remote areas. The gaur (B. gaurus), also known as the Indian bison, is the largest living cattle species. Two subspecies are generally recognized. The Indian gaur (B. g. gaurus) historically occurred throughout the Indian subcontinent but is now confined to scattered areas of south-western and centraleastern India, Bhutan and Nepal, having been extirpated in Bangladesh and on the island of Sri Lanka. The Indochinese gaur (B. g. laosiensis) is found patchily in southern China, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and peninsular Malaysia. Both have been greatly reduced by ruthless slaughter, commercialized hunting and loss of habitat. In the 1930s large herds still grazed by night in open clearings along forest edges, with forest itself serving as their refuge. During World War II great numbers were killed, and populations have never really recovered. Diseases transmitted by domestic cattle, particularly rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease, are also a serious threat and have occasionally come close to wiping out entire populations of gaur. A third type of wild cattle, the Burmese banteng (B. javanicus birmanicus), can still be found in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, and perhaps in north-eastern India (Manipur) as well. The largest single subpopulation, about 4600, lives in eastern Cambodia.
The khting-vor (Pseudonovibos spiralis) is a mysterious bovid reputed to exist in Cambodia and Vietnam, and known only from a few curiously twisted horns that may be nothing more than artificially crafted cattle horns for use as talismans. However, there is a fairly reliable report of British hunters from the early twentieth century having observed the living creatures, and even shooting two of them for use as tiger bait. It is included here on a provisional basis, but its existence must be considered highly questionable.
Two subspecies of tiger (Panthera tigris) historically inhabited the Oriental Region. The Indochinese tiger (P. t. corbetti) lives in mountainous and hilly areas of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. It formerly occurred in Cambodia and south-western China, but is believed to be extinct in those countries. In 2010 the total world population was estimated at about 350 individuals. The Bengal tiger (P. t. tigris) is the most common subspecies of tiger and still lives in a wide range of habitats, from grasslands, rainforests, scrub and dry forests, and mangroves. At the end of the nineteenth century it ranged across South Asia from Pakistan to China, and it was estimated that probably about 40,000 of them roamed the Indo-Pakistan part of that range. That number had dropped to 2000–4000 owing to excessive shooting, poisoning, habitat destruction, and reduction of prey 50–60 years later. Today they are confined to a few suitable areas of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal. There are a tremendous number in captivity.
The Asiatic lion, long considered to be a distinct subspecies, is now generally thought to be a relict population of African lion (Panthera leo leo). Historically, outside of sub- Saharan Africa lions ranged across northern Africa and southern and eastern Europe throughout almost all of south-western Asia, from the Arabian Peninsula and Asia Minor, as far as India, where they were widespread across the northern half of the subcontinent. Herodotus reported almost 2500 years ago that there were many in Thrace, and declared that during the march of the Persian king Xerxes through Macedonia (480 bc) some of the baggage camels were killed by lions. Later, Aristotle (384–322 bc) assigned the same range to the lion, but referred to it as rare. By ad 80–100 the lion was considered to be entirely extirpated in Europe. The reason for the disappearance must be traced to the unceasing warfare man has carried on against this animal. Neither the climate nor the food supply could have been important factors in the elimination of the lion at that time. Until the nineteenth century lions still occurred in eastern Turkey, Iran, Mesopotamia, and from east of the Indus River to Bengal and the Narmada River in central India. As late as 1866 they were described as ‘not rare’ in Asia Minor, but hunting, loss of habitat and persecution led to their extermination through most of these areas within the last century and a half. In Iran they seem to have been wiped out during the 1930s – the last occurrence outside of India apart from an isolated population in the High Atlas Mountains of North Africa, where they perhaps survived up to the 1940s. Meanwhile, in India human occupation of the land and a tremendous slaughter by the military exterminated lions everywhere except in the Gir Forest, on the Kathiawar Peninsula of Gujarat, north-western India. Since 1884 they have been entirely confined to this small teak forest and to nearby open thorn scrub and scattered acacias among light stands of grass. The forest was officially protected to ensure the survival of the Asiatic lion, but continued to be utilized by thousands of squatters and tens of thousands of domestic animals. Nevertheless, the lion population remained stable despite the killing of around 100 annually. In 1936 there were thought to be 287 lions, in 1955, 290, and in 1963, 255. In 1968, however, only 175 still survived, and in 1970 less than 150. Three Asiatic lions had also been introduced in the Chandraprabha Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh in 1957, which by 1966 had increased to 11; by 1969 all of them had been killed. Today, this last vestige remains entirely confined to what is now Gir Forest National Park, where numbers have increased in recent years to around 650 as of 2017. As a single population they remain vulnerable to threats such as epidemics and forest fires, and some poaching continues. Reintroductions to other areas of India and Iran have long been discussed.
The Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri) is found in mainland South East Asia and southern China. The Indian leopard (P. p. fusca) is confined to the Indian subcontinent, Myanmar and southern Tibet. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and prey base and by human persecution.
The Burmese wild dog (Cuon alpinus adjustus) is confined to north-eastern India and northern Myanmar, where it is threatened by loss of habitat, depletion of its prey base and human persecution.
The sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) is a lanky, shaggy, mainly insectivorous species native to South Asia. The Indian sloth bear (M. u. ursinus) formerly occurred in a wide variety of habitats across India, Bangladesh and the southern lowlands of Nepal and presumably Bhutan, where it is now mostly confined to dry, sparsely forested areas. Habitat destruction is the chief reason for the decline, although human–bear conflicts often result in persecution.
Several species and subspecies of crested gibbon (Nomascus) are seriously threatened by loss of habitat, hunting for food and ‘traditional medicine’ and live capture for use as pets. The northern white-cheeked crested gibbon (N. leucogenys) is known only from a few localities in extreme southwestern China (Yunnan), northern Laos and northern Vietnam. The southern white-cheeked crested gibbon (N. siki) is found patchily in central Laos and central Vietnam. The northern yellow-cheeked crested gibbon (N. annamensis) is found patchily in southern Laos, south-central Vietnam and north-eastern Cambodia. The southern yellow-cheeked crested gibbon (N. gabriellae) is found patchily in southern Vietnam and eastern Cambodia. The Laotian black crested gibbon (N. concolor lu) is confined to a small area in northwestern Laos (Luang Namtha and Bokeo provinces).
Several species and subspecies of hoolock gibbon (Hoolock) are threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. The western hoolock gibbon (H. hoolock) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (H. h. hoolock) is found over a relatively wide area of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura), eastern Bangladesh, north-western Myanmar and possibly southwestern China (Tibet). The Mishmi Hills hoolock gibbon (H. h. mishmiensis) is confined to a small area of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam). The eastern hoolock gibbon (H. leuconedys) is found in northern Myanmar between the Chindwin and Irrawaddy rivers. The tianxing hoolock gibbon (H. tianxing) occurs over a wide area of Myanmar between the Irradaddy and Salween Rivers, and in extreme south-western China (Yunnan).
The pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus) is found in southeastern Thailand, western Cambodia and parts of southwestern Laos, where it is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
The golden long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis aureus) is found in southern Bangladesh, Laos, Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago) and west-central Thailand, but is everywhere threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
Three species of douc (Pygathrix), brightly coloured leafeating monkeys, have long been persecuted by humans. During the Vietnam War their lowland and montane rainforest habitat was heavily bombed and sprayed with defoliants such as Agent Orange, and it is said that soldiers also occasionally used the animals for target practice. Since then, deforestation and hunting for food and ‘traditional medicine’ are the primary threats. The red-shanked douc (P. nemaeus) is found patchily in eastern Laos, central and north-central Vietnam and north-eastern Cambodia. The grey-shanked douc (P. cinerea) is largely confined to the Central Highlands of south-central Vietnam, extending slightly into north-eastern Cambodia. The total population is thought to be less than 2000. The black-shanked douc (P. nigripes) occurs in eastern Cambodia and southern Vietnam.
Several leaf-eating monkeys of the genus Trachypithecus are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. The Tenasserim langur (T. barbei) is known only from a few localities in south-western Thailand and adjacent northeastern Myanmar. Phayre’s langur (T. phayrei) is divided into two subspecies. The western Phayre’s langur (T. p. phayrei) is found in eastern Bangladesh, north-eastern India (Assam, Mizoram and Tripura) and western Myanmar. The Shan State Phayre’s langur (T. p. shanicus) occurs in south-western China (Yunnan) and in northern and eastern Myanmar. The Indochinese grey langur (T. crepusculus) occurs in south-western China (Yunnan), Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and northern Vietnam. The Laotian black langur (T. laotum) is confined to a small area of central Laos (Bolikhamxai and Khammouane provinces). The Ha Tinh langur (T. hatinhensis) is found in the limestone forests of north-central Vietnam (Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, and Quang Tri provinces) and east-central Laos (Khammouane and Savannakhet provinces). Germain’s langur (T. germaini) is still found throughout a fairly wide area of mainland South East Asia, but is everywhere declining. The orange-bellied capped langur (T. pileatus durga) from north-eastern India and Bangladesh, and the blond-bellied capped langur (T. p. pileatus) from north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, and Nagaland) and north-western Myanmar have both suffered population declines.
The pygmy slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus) is a small, nocturnal prosimian found east of the Mekong River in Vietnam, Laos, eastern Cambodia and southern China (Yunnan). Its forest habitat was greatly reduced during the Vietnam War due to extensive burning, clearing and defoliation. Today, continuing habitat destruction and hunting for use in ‘traditional medicine’ are the main threats.
The grey slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus) remains widespread within the forests of India and Sri Lanka, where it is divided into a number of subspecies. The Mysore grey slender loris (L. l. lydekkerianus) is found in southern and eastern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu). The Malabar grey slender loris (L. l. malabaricus) occurs in south-western India (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Both are threatened by loss of habitat, hunting for ‘traditional medicine’ and live collection for use as pets.
Two subspecies of brow-antlered deer (Rucervus eldii) are found in the dry forests, scrubs and grasslands of southern Asia (a third lives in wetland areas). The Burmese browantlered deer (R. e. thamin) was historically abundant on the central plains of Myanmar as well as in westernmost Thailand but was so depleted by hunting and habitat destruction that, by the 1940s, it was near extinction. The creation of sanctuaries saved it and by the mid-1980s it was once again widespread. Unfortunately, the population has since declined once more due to hunting for trophies as well as ‘traditional medicine’, and today it is once again seriously threatened. The Thai browantlered deer (R. e. siamensis) was historically found in the lowlands of Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, with outlying populations in southern China and on the island of Hainan. By 1970 only a few small herds survived in northern Thailand, all other populations having been wiped out by hunters. In 2004 the wild population was estimated ‘in the low tens’. Fortunately, a longstanding captive breeding programme initially begun by the Vincennes Zoo, Paris, will at least continue to serve as safeguard against total extinction.
The barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii) is a type of large deer historically found throughout the Indian subcontinent from north-eastern Pakistan to Bangladesh, but which has been extirpated from most of its range due to unregulated hunting and habitat destruction. The hard-ground barasingha (R. d. branderi), the most seriously threatened of the three subspecies, survives only in Kanha National Park in central India (Madhya Pradesh), where in 2016 the total population was around 750.
Two subspecies of sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), previously discussed, are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The Indian sambar deer (R. u. unicolor) is found in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The Indochinese sambar deer (R. u. cambojensis) is confined to parts of mainland South East Asia.
The blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) was historically one of the most common and characteristic of ungulates on the dry scrublands of India and Pakistan, with herds of 10,000 said to have occurred in the Punjab. Sadly, within a few decades, merciless hunting had brought it to the verge of extinction. Today only small, scattered herds are to be seen, which are largely confined to protected areas. However, large numbers have been introduced on hunting ranches worldwide, particularly in the United States, and for that reason the species is considered to be out of danger.
The four-horned antelope or chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis) is a small species found widely but patchily in India and, at least formerly, in the lowlands of Nepal. It is threatened by loss of habitat.
The hog deer (Axis porcinus) is a type of small deer historically found over much of mainland South and South East Asia, with introduced populations in parts of Australia and the United States (Texas, Florida and Hawaii) and another in Sri Lanka that is either native or introduced. The two recognized subspecies have been much reduced by hunting and habitat destruction. The Indian hog deer (A. p. porcinus) is now confined to a few isolated populations in eastern Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and possibly south-western China (Yunnan). The Indochinese hog deer (A. p. annamiticus) has been almost entirely extirpated throughout its former range, although small numbers still survive in Cambodia and another population of unknown taxonomic origin has been reintroduced into north-central Thailand.
The silver-backed chevrotain (Tragulus versicolor) is a little-known type of ‘mouse-deer’ that was first described in 1910 on the basis of four specimens collected from what is now central Vietnam. It was not recorded again until 1990, but was afterwards feared extinct as a result of hunting and habitat destruction. In 2019, however, camera traps confirmed its survival in southern coastal Vietnam. Williamson’s chevrotain (T. williamsoni) is known only from a single specimen collected in north-western Thailand. It is thought that the species may be found more widely in the highlands of South East Asia, in particular southern China and northern Vietnam.
The leaf muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis), standing as it does only about 60 cm in height, is considered the smallest true deer in the world. Only just discovered in 1997 in northern Myanmar (Kachin state), it is now known to occur as well in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland). The species is believed to be decreasing in number due to hunting by local people.
The giant muntjac (Megamuntiacus vuquangensis) is found throughout the Annamite Mountains and associated hill ranges in central and south-central Vietnam, eastern Laos and (marginally) eastern Cambodia. It is threatened by intense hunting pressure.
Heude’s warty pig (Sus bucculentus) is (or was) a type of wild pig known only from two skulls collected from southern Vietnam in 1892. It was feared extinct until 1995, when the skull of a freshly killed specimen was discovered in the Annamite Mountains of central Laos.
The Bhutan binturong (Arctictis binturong albifrons) is a type of large viverrid that was first described in 1822 based on a drawing by Alfred Duvaucel. In recent years it has been camera-trapped in Royal Manas National Park, and is thought to be present in other parts of southern Bhutan where habitat remains largely intact. The Thai binturong (A. b. gairdneri) was first described in 1916 from a skull collected in southwestern Thailand.
Owston’s palm civet (Chrotogale owstoni) is found widely in Laos, Vietnam and a small area of southernmost China (Yunnan), but is everywhere threatened by hunting and loss of habitat.
The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) remains widespread in South Asia from northern and south-eastern Pakistan through much of India south of the Himalayas, southern Nepal, Sri Lanka, and parts of Bangladesh. Like all pangolins it is everywhere threatened by collection for use in Chinese ‘traditional medicine’, as well as local consumption of its meat.
The long-eared gymnure (Hylomys megalotis) is a hedgehog-like mammal known only from limestone karst forests in central Laos (Khammouane province).
The lesser marmoset rat (Hapalomys delacouri) has a patchy distribution in South East Asia, where very few specimens have ever been collected. Delacour’s lesser marmoset rat (H. d. delacouri) is known from northern Laos, Vietnam and southern China (southern Yunnan and Guangxi).
Ranjini’s field rat (Rattus ranjiniae) is known only from three widely separated localities in south-western India (Kerala).
The Myanmar flying fox (Pteropus intermedius) is known only from two roosting colonies in northern peninsular Myanmar. Lyle’s flying fox (P. lylei) is found in southern and central Cambodia, southern Thailand, and southern Vietnam, with a further outlying population in southern China (Yunnan). It is threatened by the loss of large roosting trees and by hunting.
Wroughton’s mastiff bat (Otomops wroughtoni) was, until recently, known only from a single cave in the Western Ghats of south-western India (Karnataka). It has since been recorded from four localities in north-eastern India (Meghalaya), as well as from northern Cambodia, suggesting a much larger range than previously thought.
Joffre’s pipistrelle bat (Hypsugo joffrei) is known only from a few specimens collected over a wide area in northern and north-western Myanmar, India, Nepal, and Vietnam.
The mitred horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus mitratus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1844 from north-eastern India (Jharkhand).
The sarus crane (Antigone antigone), the world’s tallest flying bird, is a non-migratory species found disjunctly in South and South East Asia and in northern Australia. The Indian sarus crane (A. a. antigone) inhabits northern and central India, Nepal and, at least historically, parts of eastern Pakistan. Vagrants are occasionally seen in Bangladesh. The South East Asian sarus crane (A. a. sharpii) was also formerly widespread but is now confined to a few areas of Cambodia, southern Laos, southern Vietnam and southern Myanmar. Both subspecies have suffered significant declines due to loss of habitat, hunting, egg and chick collection, and pesticides.
The Indian vulture (Gyps indicus) was historically very common in south-eastern Pakistan and peninsular India south of the Gangetic plain, but since the mid-1990s has suffered a catastrophic decline throughout its range due to feeding on animal carcasses treated with the veterinary drug diclofenac. Attempts at banning the drug have thus far been unsuccessful.
The Gingee Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus ginginianus) is confined to the Indian subcontinent where it has suffered a rapid population decline mainly resulting from secondary poisoning (i.e. consuming the carcasses of livestock that have been treated with a veterinary medicine fatal to vultures).
The Indian spotted eagle (Clanga hastata) is found widely but patchily across southern Asia and Indochina, but is everywhere rare and declining due to loss of habitat.
The forest owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti) is a type of small owl confined to a few localities in west-central India. First described in 1873, it was long known only from a handful of specimens and not seen after 1884 until finally rediscovered in 1997. Other populations have been found since but the species remains seriously threatened, with a total population estimated in 2015 at less than 250.
The Indian skimmer (Rynchops albicollis) is a tern-like bird that was historically widely distributed and common across the Indian subcontinent as well as along the major rivers of Myanmar and the Mekong in Indochina. The species has suffered a massive decline due primarily to habitat destruction and is now confined to a few sporadic colonies.
The rufous-necked hornbill (Aceros nipalensis) was historically widespread in South and South East Asia but has declined dramatically due to hunting and loss of habitat. It is now very rare across much of its range and is thought to have been extirpated from Nepal and many areas in Thailand, and is close to disappearing from Vietnam.
The Manipur bush-quail (Perdicula manipurensis) is a rare and elusive species known primarily from historical accounts originating in north-eastern India (West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland and Meghalaya) and possibly the Chittagong Hill tracts of eastern Bangladesh. There was a gap in records after 1932 broken only by a single unconfirmed report in 1998, until its rediscovery withinManas National Park, Assam in 2006. Given the lack ofmore recent records and the small amount of remaining grassland habitat available, any remaining populations must be very small and fragmented. Two ill-defined subspecies (P. m. manipurensis and P. m. inglisi) have been described, separated by the Brahmaputra River.
The Nilgiri wood pigeon (Columba elphinstonii) is found widely but patchily throughout southern and south-western India (Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu), but is everywhere rare and declining. The pale-capped pigeon (C. punicea) was also historically widespread in South and South East Asia but is now confined to a few scattered pockets in north-eastern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Both have declined due to heavy hunting pressure and loss of habitat.
The dark-rumped swift (Apus acuticauda) is known only from a few breeding colonies in the Himalayan foothills of Bhutan and in the hills of north-eastern India (Meghalaya, Nagaland and Mizoram), from where it migrates to southern China (Yunnan) and western Thailand. In 2018 the total population was thought to be around 1000.
The white-eyed river martin (Eurochelidon sirintarae) is known only from a single wintering ground (the reedbeds around Lake Boraphet in central Thailand). Not reported with certainty since 1978 despite targeted surveys, it may be extinct, although it is possible that it might still survive in isolated areas of Myanmar.
The silver oriole (Oriolus mellianus) breeds in southern China (Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Guangdong), from where it winters in Thailand and western Cambodia. The total population is very small and continues to decline due to loss of habitat.
The green avadavat (Amandava formosa) is a type of finch found in central India, where it is rapidly declining due to trapping for the cage-bird trade, compounded by habitat loss and degradation.
The grey-crowned prinia (Prinia cinereocapilla) is a type of passerine bird found patchily in north-eastern India (Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam), Nepal and Bhutan.
The yellow-throated bulbul (Pycnonotus xantholaemus) is a type of passerine bird found in southern peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Populations are small and severely fragmented.
The white-naped tit (Machlolophus nuchalis) is a rare species found disjunctly in scattered pockets within northwestern and south-eastern India. It continues to decline due to loss of habitat.
The broad-tailed grassbird (Schoenicola platyurus) is a type of warbler that was formerly common in the hills and mountains of south-western India, with a few additional unconfirmed records from Sri Lanka (presumably vagrants). The species has undergone a significant decline due to the mismanagement and destruction of native shola grasslands.
The Burmese star tortoise (Geochelone platynota) was historically widespread in the dry forests and shrublands of central Myanmar, but is thought to have become extinct in the wild by the beginning of the twenty-first century owing to overcollection for local subsistence and export to Chinese food markets. Captive-bred specimens have since been reintroduced into two closely guarded protected areas (Shwesettaw and Minsontaung wildlife sanctuaries). The Indian star tortoise (G. elegans) is found patchily in dry areas of south-eastern Pakistan, north-western, eastern and southern India, and Sri Lanka. It is threatened by loss of habitat and collection for the international pet trade.
Phayre’s Asian giant tortoise (Manouria emys phayrei) occurs from peninsular Thailand north through Myanmar to the north-eastern Indian and eastern Bangladeshi hill tracts. It has suffered considerable declines due to loss of habitat and collection for use as food.
Bourret’s box turtle (Cuora bourreti) is a rare, primarily terrestrial species found in central Vietnam and adjoining south-eastern Laos (Savannakhet province). The Indochinese box turtle (C. galbinifrons) occurs in southern China (Guangxi and the island of Hainan), northern Vietnam and north-eastern Laos. The keeled box turtle (C. mouhotii) is divided into two subspecies found widely, if disjunctly, over much of South and South East Asia. The nominate form (C. m. mouhotii) is known from northern Laos, northern Vietnam and southern China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, Yunnan and the island of Hainan). Populations inhabiting south-eastern Bangladesh, north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and Mizoram), northern Myanmar and Bhutan may represent either this form or perhaps a separate taxon. Obst’s keeled box turtle (C. m. obsti) is known only from central Vietnam and possibly adjoining central Laos. All are seriously threatened by overcollection for use as food and pets.
Annandale’s bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus annandalei) is known only from two localities in western Myanmar.
The black and white spitting cobra (Naja siamensis) is found widely in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, southern Vietnam and eastern Myanmar, but is everywhere threatened by overcollection for use in Chinese ‘traditional medicine’. The Mandalay spitting cobra (N. mandalayensis) is known only from a few individuals collected from the dry central zone of Myanmar.
The black-barred keelback (Rhabdophis callichroma) is a type of snake known only from northern Vietnam and the island of Hainan, where it has not been collected in nearly a century.
The scarce bridal snake (Dryocalamus gracilis) is known only from a small number of specimens collected over a wide area of southern India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar.
The graceful racer (Platyceps gracilis) is found patchily in the dry forests and shrublands of western and north-western India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan).
Phipson’s earth snake (Uropeltis phipsonii) is known only from a few localities in western coastal India (Maharastra and Goa).
The Malabar toad (Duttaphrynus hololius) is known only from a few scattered localities in south-eastern India (Andhra Pradesh).
The Charpa tree frog (Polypedates occidentalis) is known only from the Charpa Forest in south-western India (Kerala).
The Dudhwa foam-nest tree frog (Chirixalus dudhwaensis) is known only from Dudhwa National Park in northern India (Uttar Pradesh).
Quyet’s foam-nest tree frog (Gracixalus quyeti) is known from a small area of lowland and montane forest in northcentral Vietnam (Quang Binh and Ha Tinh provinces).
Jerdon’s shrub frog (Philautus jerdonii) is known only from its original collection during the nineteenth century from north-eastern India (West Bengal).
The Khao Yai odorous frog (Odorrana indeprensa) is known only from two small areas of south-central Thailand (Nakhon Ratchasima and Nakhon Nayok provinces), centred on Khao Yai National Park.
Boulenger’s golden-backed frog (Indosylvirana aurantiaca) is known from the Western Ghats of south-western India and from Sri Lanka.
The Chengalam caecilian (Uraeotyphlus interruptus) is a fossorial amphibian known only from a few specimens collected from a rubber plantation in south-western India (Kerala).
The Kuttal caecilian (Chikila fulleri) is known only from a single specimen collected at the beginning of the twentieth century in north-western India (Assam).
The Mae Wang Valley caecilian (Ichthyophis acuminatus) is known only from the Mae Wang Valley in north-western Thailand (Chiang Mai province). The moustached caecilian (I. moustakius) is known only from a small area of northeastern India (Manipur). The Sendenyu striped caecilian (I. sendenyu) is known only from a few specimens collected within a banana plantation in north-eastern India (Nagaland). The Khumhzi striped caecilian (I. khumhzi) is known only from two closely situated localities in northeastern India (Manipur).
Mountains and Highlands
There are high mountains in south-western India and throughout South East Asia. Myanmar (formerly Burma) in particular has range after range of rugged mountains, some of which have been denuded of forests and lie bare, while others remain cloaked in forests. The latter lose their leaves with a marked seasonality and therefore differ from true rainforests, with their distribution in mainland and insular Asia corresponding to the pattern of seasonal monsoon winds (bringing rainfall and moisture) and high summer temperatures. The monsoon forests of tropical Asia are among the most important habitats left for wildlife. Unfortunately, they are disappearing rapidly. Owing to heavy population pressure, cultivation, and grazing as well as improper use of land, many monsoon montane forests have been destroyed and have given way to the results of erosion. Serious landslides are common on devastated mountain slopes, violent floods are an annual occurrence, and the water table in valleys and plains is sinking. The deforestation of these mountains thus releases formidable challenges not only to agriculturists and conservationists but also to whole populations.
The red serow (Capricornis rubidus) is a type of goatantelope known only from northern (and possibly western) Myanmar, where it is threatened by overhunting.
Roosevelts’ muntjac (Muntiacus rooseveltorum) was long known only by a single specimen collected from northern Laos (Phongsali province) in 1929. In recent years, however, skulls along with a few sightings originating within the mountains of northern Laos and north-western Vietnam perhaps pertain to the species.
Hume’s rat (Hadromys humei) is known only from three isolated localities in north-eastern India (Assam and Manipur).
The highland pygmy white-toothed shrew (Suncus montanus) is found widely but patchily in the Western Ghats of south-western India and in the highlands of Sri Lanka.
Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew (Feroculus feroculus) is found widely but patchily in the Western Ghats of south-western India and in the highlands of Sri Lanka.
The Surat serotine bat (Eptesicus dimissus) is known only from a single specimen collected in southern Thailand (Surat Thani province) and a few others from southern Nepal.
The chestnut-eared laughingthrush (Ianthocincla konkakinhensis) is known from Kon Ka Kinh National Park in the Central Highlands of south-central Vietnam (Kon Tum province), and possibly adjacent areas of south-eastern Laos.
The impressed tortoise (Manouria impressa) is widespread within the mountains of mainland South and South East Asia, but is everywhere threatened by hunting for food.
The three-keeled hill turtle (Melanochelys tricarinata) is a little-known species from north-eastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
Fea’s bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus feae) appears to be confined to the mountains of south-eastern Myanmar and possibly adjacent north-western Thailand.
Boulenger’s ground skink (Kaestlea laterimaculata) is found widely but patchily in the both the Western and Eastern Ghats of southern India.
Beddome’s coral snake (Calliophis beddomei) is known only from a few specimens collected from three mid-elevation localities in southern India (Karnataka and Tamil Nadu).
Spencer’s mountain stream snake (Opisthotropis spenceri) is known only from a single specimen collected during the early twentieth century in north-western Thailand (Lampang province).
Boomsong’s stream snake (Parahelicops boonsongi) is known only from three specimens collected in north-eastern Thailand (Loei province).
Hampton’s green snake (Cyclophiops hamptoni) is known only from a single specimen collected in central Myanmar in the early twentieth century.
The Rapp’s stripe-necked snake (Liopeltis rappi) is known only from a small area of north-eastern India and possibly neighbouring Nepal.
Delacour’s mountain snake (Plagiopholis delacouri) is known only from disjunct historical records originating in northern Vietnam (Lao Cai and Vinh Phuc provinces) and northern Laos (Xiangkhouang province).
The Garo Hills shrub frog (Philautus garo) is known from the Garo Hills on the Shillong Plateau of north-eastern India (Assam and Meghalaya) and from the Purvanchal Range (Nagaland).
The gold-flanked odorous frog (Odorrana aureola) is known only from Phu Kradueng National Park and the Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary in north-central Thailand (Loei province).
The musical slender litter frog (Leptolalax melicus) is known only from Virachey National Park in north-eastern Cambodia (Ratanakiri province), but may also occur in adjacent areas of southern Laos and southern Vietnam. It is threatened by logging and dam construction.
The Laotian warty newt (Laotriton laoensis) is confined to the mountains of northern Laos, where it is threatened by overcollection by the international pet trade as well as use in ‘traditional medicine’.
The Western Ghats
The Western Ghats are an old, isolated, low-level mountain range running parallel to the coast of south-western India (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Once covered in moist deciduous and montane rainforests, they still contain a large proportion of the subcontinent’s wildlife species and are among the most important biological hotspots on Earth. Sadly, the forests of the coastal lowlands are now completely gone, and those of the higher elevations (known as sholas) are highly fragmented.
The lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), one of the most threatened monkeys in Asia, is confined to the moist forests of the Western Ghats from the Kalakkadu Hills north to Ashi Ghat in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. During the twentieth century its range became increasingly isolated and fragmented by loss of habitat and numbers dropped to alarming levels, in part due to hunting as well. Thanks to decades of protection within a series of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries the population has grown once more, although it is still thought to be less than 4000.
The Nilgiri langur (Semnopithecus johnii) is found, rather unevenly, in the hill country of the Western Ghats from the Aramboli Pass near the southern tip of India north to Srimangala. Hunting and habitat destruction remain a threat, but the population is thought to be relatively stable.
The Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius) is confined to small pockets of high-elevation grassy slopes and cliffs in the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, where the total population is currently less than 2500. Presumably the species had a much wider range in the past, because it has relatives in the Himalayas and the Arabian Peninsula. Excessive hunting is believed to be the cause of the decline.
The Malabar civet (Viverra civettina) is another species thought to be endemic to the Western Ghats, although the few historical records lack precise locality information. Already considered rare or possibly even extinct by 1970, there were only two unconfirmed sightings until the late 1980s, when skins of recently killed civets (since lost) were obtained from hunters. The absence of any reports since the advent of widespread camera-trapping suggests that few, if any, remain.
The Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsii) is a rare species found widely but patchily within the Western Ghats.
The Nilgiri striped palm squirrel (Funambulus sublineatus) is found widely but patchily within the Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
The Sahyadris forest rat (Rattus satarae) is confined to three small, widely separated forest areas of the Western Ghats (Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka).
Bonhote’s mouse (Mus famulus) is known only from four localities within the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
The Malabar spiny tree mouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus) is found widely but patchily within the Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
The Nilgiri long-tailed tree mouse (Vandeleuria nilagirica) is confined to two small areas of the Western Ghats (Karnataka and Tamil Nadu).
Day’s pygmy white-toothed shrew (Suncus dayi) is known only from four localities within the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Salim Ali’s fruit bat (Latidens salimalii) is known only from a few localities within the Western Ghats.
The Nilgiri laughingthrush (Montecincla cachinnans) was historically common within the Western Ghats but is now largely confined to the Nilgiri Hills, with a smaller disjunct population in the Palakkad-Siruvani Hills of Kerala. The Banasura laughingthrush (M. jerdoni) is confined to a few high-elevation shola localities in Karnataka and Kerala. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Nilgiri blue robin (Sholicola major) is confined to the Nilgiri Hills and South Wayanad Hills of Kerala, and to three peaks in south-western Karnataka. The white-bellied blue robin (S. albiventris) is found in scattered shola forest patches on the higher hills of the Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Nilgiri pipit (Anthus nilghiriensis) is a type of passerine bird found widely but patchily within the Western Ghats of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, where it is threatened by loss of its upland grassland habitat.
The Travancore tortoise (Indotestudo travancorica) is a large species restricted to the forests of the Western Ghats (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu).
The Cochin Forest cane turtle (Vijayachelys silvatica) was first described from two specimens collected in 1912, and not seen again for 70 years. It was rediscovered in the Anamalai Hills in 1982, and has since been found elsewhere within the Western Ghats.
The Indian kangaroo lizard (Otocryptis beddomii) is known from a few localities within the Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
Several species of day gecko (Cnemaspis) endemic to the Western Ghats are threatened by loss of habitat. The Wynad day gecko (C. wynadensis) is known only from two localities in Kerala. Jerdon’s day gecko (C. jerdonii) is known only from a few localities in Tamil Nadu. Indraneil Das’ day gecko (C. indraneildasii) is known from a few localities in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Beddome’s day gecko (C. beddomei) is known from a few localities in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The coastal day gecko (C. littoralis) and the Nilgiri dwarf day gecko (C. indica) are both known from a few localities in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
The Satara house gecko (Hemidactylus sataraensis) is confined to two localities within the Western Ghats (Maharashtra).
Boulenger’s tree skink (Dasia subcaerulea) is known only from two specimens collected in the High Wavy Mountains and several others collected elsewhere in Tamil Nadu. There have been no records in recent years.
Gans’ supple skink (Eutropis gansi) is known only from the Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu. Inger’s supple skink (E. clivicola) is known from two widely separated localities within the Western Ghats (Kerala).
Rurk’s ristella (Ristella rurkii) is a type of skink known only from nineteenth-century historical records originating in the Anaimalai, Palni, and Travancore Hills (Tamil Nadu and Kerala). The Travancore ristella (R. travancorica) is confined to Pon Mudi Hill in Tamil Nadu and the Agasthyamalai Hills in Kerala.
The Karnataka bronzeback tree snake (Dendrelaphis chairecacos) is known only from a few specimens collected from two widely separated localities within the Western Ghats (Karnataka and Kerala).
The short-tailed kukri snake (Oligodon brevicauda) is known only a few specimens collected over a relatively wide area of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
The Travancore cat snake (Boiga dightoni) is known from a few disjunct areas of the Western Ghats in Kerala.
The three-lined thorntail snake (Platyplectrurus trilineatus) is known only from three historical records originating in the Anamalai and Palani Hills (Kerala and Tamil Nadu). It was last reported in 1972. The Madura thorntail snake (P. madurensis) is known only from a few historical records originating from the Palani Hills in Tamil Nadu and the Cardamom Hills in Kerala.
The Karnataka burrowing snake (Plectrurus canaricus) is known only from specimens collected during the late nineteenth century from Kudremukh Hill in Karnataka. The Kerala burrowing snake (P. aureus) is known only from a few specimens collected during the nineteenth century from the Western Ghats (Kerala).
The spotted earth snake (Uropeltis maculata) is known only from two historical records from the southern Western Ghats (Anaimalai and Travancore Hills). The barred earth snake (U. myhendrae) is known from two localities in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Günther’s earth snake (U. liura) is known only from the Madura and Agasthyamalai Hills of Tamil Nadu. Brougham’s earth snake (U. broughami) is known only from two specimens collected in 1878 from the Sirumalai Hills and Palani Hills of Tamil Nadu.
The Travancore earth snake (Rhinophis travancoricus) is known from a few scattered localities in the Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
The two-lined black earth snake (Melanophidium bilineatum) is known from four localities within the Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
Thurston’s worm snake (Gerrhopilus thurstoni) is known only from three historical collections during the nineteenth century within the Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Beddome’s worm snake (G. beddomii) is known only from three nineteenth-century records originating from south of the Palghat Gap.
The Belgaum worm snake (Indotyphlops exiguus) is known only from its original collection during the nineteenth century within the Western Ghats (Karnataka).
The Malabar tree toad (Pedostibes tuberculosus) is known only from a few widely spaced localities within the Western Ghats, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Kempholey toad (Duttaphrynus brevirostris) is known only from its original collection in 1937 from Karnataka. The Silent Valley toad (D. silentvalleyensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1981 in or near Silent Valley National Park in Kerala. The small-eared toad (D. microtympanum) is known only from a few localities within the southern Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Beddome’s toad (D. beddomii) is known from a few widely spaced localities in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
The Humbali toad (Xanthophryne koynayensis) is known only from two localities in the Western Ghats (Maharashtra). The Amboli toad (X. tigerina) is known only from Amboli, in Maharashtra.
The red torrent toad (Ghatophryne rubigina) is known only from Silent Valley and Wynaad regions of Kerala. The ornate torrent toad (G. ornata) is known with certainty only from the Brahmagiri Hills and adjoining areas of Karnataka.
The small gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus lateralis) is known only from two small areas in Karnataka and Kerala. The Kalakad gliding tree frog (R. calcadensis) is known only from the Agasthyamala Hills in Kerala and two national parks in Tamil Nadu. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The ghat shrub frog (Ghatixalus asterops) is known only from the Palani and Anaimalai Hills (Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
The Amboli shrub frog (Pseudophilautus amboli) is known only from a few localities in the vicinity of the Amboli Forest in southern Maharashtra. The dark-eared shrub frog (P. wynaadensis) is known only from a few widely spaced localities in Karnataka and Kerala.
A great many species of bush frog (Raorchestes) are endemic to small areas of the Western Ghats, where they are highly threatened by habitat destruction. Sushil’s bush frog (R. sushili) is confined to Andiparai shola in Tamil Nadu. The Koadaikanal bush frog (R. dubois) is known only from a single locality in Tamil Nadu. The Kudremukh bush frog (R. tuberohumerus) is confined to two localities in Karnataka. Seshachar’s bush frog (R. charius) is known from three localities in Karnataka. The Kalpetta bush frog (R. nerostagona) is known from a few localities in Kerala. The Travancore bush frog (R. travancoricus) was long known only from a single specimen collected in the late nineteenth century, and thought to be extinct. Rediscovered in 2004, it is now known from two localities in Tamil Nadu. The Coorg yellow bush frog (R. luteolus) is known from three localities in Karnataka. The Ochlandra bush frog (R. ochlandrae) is known from a few localities in Kerala. The confusing green bush frog (R. chromasynchysi) is confined to a few localities in Karnataka and Kerala. The resplendent bush frog (R. resplendens) is confined to the summit of Mount Anamudi in Kerala, where it is protected within Eravikulam National Park. The Bombay bush frog (R. bombayensis) is found patchily in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Munnar bush frog (R. munnarensis), greeneyed bush frog (R. chlorosomma) and Griet’s bush frog (R. griet) are all confined to the area of Munnar in Kerala. Jerdon’s bush frog (R. glandulosus) is found patchily throughout the Western Ghats. The yellow-bellied bush frog (R. flaviventris) was long known only from a single specimen collected from an undefined locality in 1882. It has since been rediscovered in the Anaimalai Hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and may also occur in the Palani Hills. The Pon Mudi bush frog (R. ponmudi) was originally known only from Pon Mudi Hill in the southern Western Ghats, but has since been found in a few other localities in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Several species of dancing frog (Micrixalus) are endemic to the Western Ghats, where they are threatened by habitat destruction. The elegant dancing frog (M. elegans) is known only from a single locality in Karnataka, while the Kottigehar dancing frog (M. kottigeharensis) is known only from two localities in Karnataka. The Malabar dancing frog (M. saxicola), Jerdon’s dancing frog (M. phyllophilus), Pillai’s dancing frog (M. nudis), Gadgil’s dancing frog (M. gadgili), and Boulenger’s dancing frog (M. silvaticus) are all found patchily throughout the Western Ghats.
Günther’s leaping frog (Indirana brachytarsus), Leith’s leaping frog (I. leithii), Boulenger’s leaping frog (I. leptodactyla) and the spotted leaping frog (I. diplosticta) are all found sporadically throughout the Western Ghats, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.
Several species of night frog (Nyctibatrachus) are endemic to the Western Ghats, where they are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution. The Kempholey night frog (N. kempholeyensis), forest night frog (N. sylvaticus) and Coorg night frog (N. sanctipalustris) were each known only from a single specimen collected in the early twentieth century from Karnataka, and feared extinct. They were all rediscovered in 2011. The meowing night frog (N. poocha) was discovered in 2011 from Karnataka, as part of the effort to rediscover the aforementioned species. The Dattatreya night frog (N. dattatreyaensis) is known only from the vicinity of Manikyadhara Falls within the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka. Humayun’s night frog (N. humayuni) is known from a few localities in Maharashtra. The Kudremukh night frog (N. karnatakaensis) is known only from Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka. The miniature night frog (N. minimus) is known only from the Wayanad Plateau in Kerala. The Shola night frog (N. sholai) is known only from Eravikulam National Park in Kerala. The Deccan night frog (N. deccanensis), Beddome’s night frog (N. beddomii), Alicia’s night frog (N. aliciae), Malabar night frog (N. major) and the small night frog (N. minor) are all found patchily throughout the Western Ghats.
The Sholiga rice frog (Microhyla sholigari) is known from the southern Western Ghats (Karnataka and Kerala).
The purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) is known only from a few localities in the southern Western Ghats.
The Sahyadris frog (Minervarya sahyadris) is known from two localities in the southern Western Ghats (Karnataka and Kerala).
Four species of wart frog (Zakerana) endemic to the Western Ghats are threatened by loss of habitat. The Mysore wart frog (Z. mysorensis) is known only from its original collection during the 1920s in Karnataka. Murthy’s wart frog (Z. murthii) is known only from a few specimens collected from a single locality in Tamil Nadu. Rao’s wart frog (Z. sauriceps) is known only from its original collection during the 1930s from Karnataka. The short-webbed wart frog (Z. brevipalmata) is found widely but patchily within the Western Ghats.
The Malabar narrow-mouthed frog (Melanobatrachus indicus) is known only from three localities in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
The Wattakole burrowing frog (Sphaerotheca leucorhynchus) is known only from a single (now lost) specimen collected from Karnataka in the 1930s.
The triangular balloon frog (Uperodon triangularis) and the marbled balloon frog (U. mormorata) are both found patchily throughout the Western Ghats.
The Kodagu striped caecilian (Ichthyophis kodaguensis) is known for certain only from the Venkidds Valley Estate in southern Karnataka.
The Mudur caecilian (Gegeneophis madhavai) and the Mhadei caecilian (G. mhadeiensis) are each known only from a small area of Karnataka. The pink blind caecilian (G. carnosus) is known from a few localities in Karnataka and Kerala.
The Humbarli caecilian (Indotyphlus maharashtraensis) is known only from a single locality in Maharashtra.
Oommen’s caecilian (Uraeotyphlus oommeni), Menon’s caecilian (U. menoni) and the Kannan caecilian (U. narayani) are all known from the Western Ghats in Kerala.
The Nilgiri Hills
The Nilgiri Hills (or Nilgiris) are located in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. They span around 90 km in a north–south direction and nearly 80 km from east to west, and are clearly distinguished from the surrounding lowlands in the west, south, and east.
The Nilgiri day gecko (Cnemaspis nilagirica) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Nilgiri Hills.
Perrotet’s vine snake (Ahaetulla perroteti) is confined to grassland patches in shola forests of the Nilgiri Hills.
Günther’s burrowing snake (Plectrurus guentheri) is known only from two specimens collected during the late nineteenth-century in the Nilgiri Hills.
Tindall’s worm snake (Gerrhopilus tindalli) is known only from two specimens collected in the 1940s from Kerala.
The variable shrub frog (Ghatixalus variabilis) is confined to a few localities within the Nilgiri Hills.
The spotted bush frog (Raorchestes tinniens) and the cross-marked bush frog (R. signatus) are both confined to the Nilgiri Hills.
Thampi’s dancing frog (Micrixalus thampii) is known only from Silent Valley National Park in Kerala.
The Nilgiri wart frog (Zakerana nilagirica) is known only from two localities in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
The long-headed caecilian (Ichthyophis longicephalus) is known only from Silent Valley National Park in Kerala.
The Malabar caecilian (Uraeotyphlus malabaricus) is known with certainty only from a single locality in Tamil Nadu.
The Anaimalai Hills
Spanning the border between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the Anaimalai Hills are a range of mountains that form the southern part of the Western Ghats. They are separated from the latter to the north by the Palakkad Gap.
Günther’s mountain snake (Xylophis stenorhynchus) is known for certain only from the Valparai Plateau, Anaimalai Hills (Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
Beddome’s earth snake (Uropeltis beddomii) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1862 in the Anaimalai Hills (Tamil Nadu). The Ponachi earth snake (U. macrorhyncha) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1877 in the Anaimalai Hills (Tamil Nadu). The Cochin earth snake (U. nitida) is known only from a few specimens collected in 1878 in the Anaimalai Hills (Kerala). Peters’ earth snake (U. petersi) is known only from its original collection in 1878 from an imprecise locality in Tamil Nadu.
The Anamalai gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus) is known only from an area centred on Indira Gandhi National Park in Tamil Nadu.
The Anamalai leaping frog (Indirana phrynoderma) is known only from a single locality in the Anaimalai Hills (Tamil Nadu).
The Anaikatti Hills are a subrange of the Anaimalai Hills located near the city of Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu.
The Anaikatti Hills day gecko (Cnemaspis anaikattiensis) is known only from the Anaikatti Hills.
The Palani Hills
The Palani Hills (also known as the Palni Hills) are an eastward extension of the Western Ghats located in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. They adjoin the high Anaimalai Hills to the west.
The Palani ground skink (Kaestlea palnica) is known only from its original collection at two localities within the Palani Hills in the late nineteenth century.
Nikhil’s kukri snake (Oligodon nikhili) is known only from the Palani Hills in Kerala.
The Sungam Hills
The Sungam Hills are located between the Anaimalai and Nelliyampathi Hills in Kerala.
The Sungam dot frog (Ramanella anamalaiensis) was long known only from a (now lost) type specimen collected in the Anaimalai Hills in 1937. A population was rediscovered in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary in 2010.
The Parambikulam frog (Fejervarya parambikulamana) is known only from a now-lost holotype collected from what is now the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary.
The Nelliyampathi Hills
The Nelliyampathi Hills are located in Kerala.
Kaikatt’s bush frog (Raorchestes kaikatti) and Mark Wilkinson’s bush frog (R. marki) are both confined to the Nelliyampathi Hills.
The Cardamom Hills
The Cardamom Hills are located in south-eastern Kerala and south-western Tamil Nadu. They conjoin the Anaimalai Hills to the north-west, the Palani Hills to the north-east and the Agasthyamalai Hills to the south.
The Cardamom Hills earth snake (Rhinophis fergusonianus) is only known from a single specimen collected near Trivandrum in Kerala.
The white-spotted bush frog (Raorchestes chalazodes) is known only from the south-western slopes of the Cardamom Hills, where it was rediscovered in 2011 after not having been reported for 125 years.
The Agastyamalai Hills
The Agastyamalai Hills (formerly known as the Ashambu Hills) are located in the southern Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
The Ashambu laughingthrush (Montecincla meridionalis) is confined to the Agastyamalai Hills (Kerala and Tamil Nadu), where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The orange-lipped forest lizard (Microauris aurantolabium) is known only from the Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve and Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu and Kerala).
Vasanthi’s night frog (Nyctibatrachus vasanthi) is known only from the Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu.
Gans’ caecilian (Uraeotyphlus gansi) is known only from the Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu. Pon Mudi Hill is located in the south-western Agastyamalai Hills (Kerala).
The Pon Mudi grassland bush frog (Raorchestes graminirupes) and Bob Inger’s bush frog (R. bobingeri) are both confined to Pon Mudi Hill.
The Eastern Ghats
The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains running along India’s eastern coast (Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Telangana). They are dry, heavily eroded and cut through by four major rivers.
The large rock rat (Cremnomys elvira) is known only from a single locality within the Eastern Ghats (Tamil Nadu). The species went unrecorded from the 1940s until its rediscovery in the Shervaroy Hills in 2013.
Jerdon’s courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus) is a long-legged, nocturnal ground bird confined to a few areas of the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh and extreme southern Madhya Pradesh. Long known only from a few historical records and thought to have gone extinct around 1900, when the last individual was collected, it was unexpectedly rediscovered in 1986. It is currently known for certain only from the Sri Lankamalleswara Wildlife Sanctuary, where the total population is believed to number between 50 and 250.
The Visakhapatnam bush frog (Raorchestes terebrans) is known only from a single locality in Andhra Pradesh.
The Similipal shrub frog (Philautus similipalensis) is known only from the region of Similipal National Park in Odisha.
The Jeypore Hills
The Jeypore Hills are located in central-eastern India (Andhra Pradesh and Odisha).
The Jeypore bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus jeyporensis) was long known only from a single specimen collected in the Jeypore Hills in 1877. It was rediscovered in 2010.
The Chitteri Hills
The Chitteri Hills (also known as the Sitheri Hills) are located in south-eastern India (northern Tamil Nadu).
Pruth’s supple skink (Lygosoma pruthi) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Chitteri Hills in 1929.
The Sirumalai Hills
The Sirumalai Hills are located in southern India (southern Tamil Nadu).
The Sirumalai Hills earth snake (Uropeltis dindigalensis) is known only from the Sirumalai Hills, where it was last recorded in the 1970s.
The Shillong Plateau
The Shillong Plateau is located in north-eastern India (Assam and Meghalaya). Its southern, northern and western ridges form the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills, respectively.
The tawny-breasted wren-babbler (Spelaeornis longicaudatus) now appears to be confined to the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya due to loss of habitat.
The Garo Hills
The Garo Hills are located in north-eastern India (Assam and Meghalaya).
Kemp’s toad (Bufoides kempi) is known only from two specimens collected before 1919 from the Garo Hills.
The Tura shrub frog (Philautus kempiae) is known only from a single specimen collected in the early twentieth century.
The Siju Cave stone loach (Schistura sijuensis) is known only from Siju Cave in the Garo Hills.
The Khasi Hills
The Khasi Hills are located in north-eastern India (Meghalaya).
The Khasi rock toad (Bufoides meghalayanus) is known only from three montane forest localities in the Khasi Hills, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Shillong bush frog (Raorchestes shillongensis) is confined to a small area of forest within the Khasi Hills.
The Khasi wart frog (Limnonectes khasianus) is known only from a now-lost type specimen collected in the Khasi Hills.
The Jaintia Hills
The Jaintia Hills are located to the east of the Khasi Hills (Meghalaya).
The Krem Synrang stone loach (Schistura papulifera) is confined to the Krem Synrang cave system in the Jaintia Hills.
The Shan Hills
The Shan Hills are a vast mountainous region in centraleastern Myanmar (Shan State) and north-western Thailand. They are comprised of numerous mountain ranges separated mainly by steep, narrow river valleys and a few plateaus.
The Celestial pearl danio (Danio margaritatus) is a type of fish known from a few heavily vegetated pools on the Shan Plateau of Myanmar and Thailand. It has been heavily exploited for the international aquarium trade.
The Hwe-gna-sang stone loach (Schistura acuticephala) is known only from the Hwe-gna-sang River, on the Shan Plateau of northern Myanmar (Shan State).
The Daen Lao Range
The Daen Lao Range is located in the southern and southeastern area of the Shan Hills. It separates the Salween watershed from that of the Mekong.
Doi Suthep Mountain is located west of Chiang Mai in north-western Thailand.
The Doi Suthep caecilian (Ichthyophis youngorum) is known only from a handful of adult and larval specimens collected in 1957 from a small forested valley.
The Thanon Thong Chai Range
The southernmost part of the Shan Hills, the Thanon Thong Chai Range is located in north-western Thailand and centraleastern Myanmar.
The green odorous frog (Odorrana livida) is known only from the Dawna Hills in central-eastern Myanmar.
The Arakan Mountains
The Arakan Mountains (Rakhine Yoma in Burmese) are located in western Myanmar (Rakhine and Chin states) and north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Rakhine Yoma bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus wakeorum) is known only from the Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range in southern Rakhine state. The Irrawaddy bent-toed gecko (C. ayeyarwadyensis) is known only from two localities within the Arakan Mountains.
The spotted foam-nest tree frog (Chiromantis punctatus) is known only from the south-western foothills of the Arakan Mountains.
The Arakan large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium rakhinensis) is known only from two localities within the Arakan Mountains.
The Chin Hills
The Chin Hills are located in western Myanmar (Chin State), extending northward into north-eastern India (Manipur). Mount Victoria (Khonu Msung in Burmese) is located in the southern Chin Hills. It the highest peak in the Arakan Mountains.
The white-browed nuthatch (Sitta victoriae) is known only from the Mount Victoria area. It is threatened by loss of its montane forest habitat.
The Pegu Range
The Pegu Range (Pegu Yoma in Burmese) is located in southcentral Myanmar. It is essentially an area of low mountains, uplands and hills between the Irrawaddy and Sittaung rivers.
The Popa langur (Trachypithecus popa) is confined to the Pegu Range, where the total population is thought to be less than 260.
The Toungoo frog (Humerana oatesii) is only known from specimens collected in the Pegu Mountains in the 1890s.
The Pegu longtail catfish (Olyra burmanica) is known only from a few old museum specimens collected from the Pegu Range.
The Pegu stone loach (Neonoemacheilus peguensis) is known only from the Pegu Range. Mount Popa is an extinct volcano located in central Myanmar.
The Popa bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus brevidactylus) is confined to Mount Popa.
The Cardamom Mountains
The Cardamom Mountains (Chuor Phnom Kravanh in Khmer/Thio Khao Banthat in Thai) are located largely in south-western Cambodia, extending marginally into eastern Thailand. Dense tropical rainforest prevails on the wet westward slopes, while the eastern slopes are drier.
The Cardamom wolf snake (Lycodon cardamomensis) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Cardamom Mountains.
The Cardamom horned frog (Megophrys auralensis) is known only from the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary in Kampong Speu province, and the Central Cardamoms Protected Forest in Pursat province.
The Cardamom spiny frog (Quasipaa fasciculispina) is confined to the Cardamom Mountains, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for human consumption.
Mount Samkos
Mount Samkos (Phnom Samkos in Khmer) is located in western Cambodia (Pursat province). It is the country’s second highest peak.
The Samkos foam-nest tree frog (Chiromantis samkosensis) is currently known only from Samkos Mountain, but may also be found in neighbouring areas.
The Cardamom shrub frog (Philautus cardamonus) is known only from the Phnom Sankos Wildlife Sanctuary, but likely ranges more widely.
The Damrei Mountains
The Damrei Mountains (Chuor Phnum Damrei in Khmer – literally ‘Elephant Mountains’) are a southern offshoot of the Cardamom Mountains located in south-western Cambodia (Koh Kong and Kampot provinces).
The Damrei horned frog (Megophrys damrei) is known only from the Bokor Plateau within the Damrei Mountains. Long known only from a single specimen collected in 1914, it was rediscovered in 2011.
The Annamite Mountains
The Annamite Mountains (Day Truong Son in Vietnamese/ Xai Phou Luang in Laotian/Chaîne annamitique in French) extend approximately 1100 km through central and southern Vietnam, south-eastern Laos, and a small area of northeastern Cambodia. Its montane rainforests are among the last relatively intact examples in Indochina. Known for their globally outstanding biodiversity, in recent years a number of spectacular large mammal discoveries have been made here.
The saola or spindle-horned antelope (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis) is one of the world’s rarest large mammals, being known only from the Annamite Mountains of Laos and Vietnam. The species was only just discovered in 1992 after the discovery of remains in the Vu Quang Nature Reserve, and is still rarely seen in the wild. It has been kept in captivity on a few occasions, although only for short periods. Hunting and trapping are thought to be a threat to the small population. The Annamite muntjac (Muntiacus truongsonensis) is a tiny species first discovered in the Annamite Mountains of central Vietnam (Quang Nam province) in 1997. Taxonomic confusion with related species makes it impossible to be more precise about its distributional limits or status.
The Annamite striped rabbit (Nesolagus timminsi) occurs at low and medium altitudes in the northern and central Annamite Mountains along the Vietnam–Laotian border. It is threatened by hunting, trapping and loss of habitat.
The Annamite mouse-eared bat (Myotis annamiticus) is known for certain only from a single valley in central Vietnam (Quang Binh province), although its range likely extends further and perhaps into neighbouring Laos.
The golden-winged laughingthrush (Trochalopteron ngoclinhense) is known only from Mount Ngoc Linh and Mount Ngoc Boc in south-central Vietnam (Kon Tum and Quang Nam provinces), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and trapping.
The grey-crowned crocias (Laniellus langbianis) is a rare passerine bird was long known only from five specimens collected on the Lang Bian Plateau of south-central Vietnam (Lam Dong province) in the late 1930s, it was rediscovered there in 1994 and has since also been recorded from Kon Tum province. It is highly threatened by habitat destruction.
Smith’s blind skink (Dibamus smithi) is known only from two localities in southern Vietnam (Lam Dong and Khanh Hoa provinces).
The Annam keelback (Parahelicops annamensis) is a type of snake known only from a few specimens collected in central Vietnam (Da Nang and Kon Tum provinces) and southeastern Laos (Xe Kong province).
Thanh’s reed snake (Calamaria thanhi) is known only from a single specimen collected near Phong Na-Ke Bang National Park in central Vietnam (Quang Binh province). The concolor reed snake (C. concolor) is known only from a single specimen collected in Bach Ma National Park in central Vietnam (Thua Thien-Hue province).
Bourret’s cat snake (Boiga bourreti) is known only from a few sporadic localities in central Vietnam (Quang Binh and Kom Tum provinces).
The Truong Son pit viper (Viridovipera truongsonensis) is a rare species known with certainty only from the vicinity of Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, in the Annamite Mountains of central Vietnam (Quang Binh province). It may be found more widely.
The Ananjeva tree frog (Kurixalus ananjevae) is confined to central Vietnam (Ha Tinh province).
Quang’s foam-nest tree frog (Gracixalus quangi) is known only from three isolated areas of montane forest in northern Vietnam (Nghe An, Thanh Hoa, and Son La provinces).
The Khammouane wart frog (Limnonectes khammonensis) is known only from the Khammouane Plateau in central Laos, near the border with Vietnam.
The hidden shrub frog (Philautus abditus) is known only from a small area of south-central Vietnam (Gia Lai and Kon Tum provinces) and extreme north-eastern Cambodia (Ratanakiri province).
The Dak Cheung large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium xanthops) is known only from the Dak Cheung Plateau in south-eastern Laos (Sekong province).
Firth’s dwarf litter frog (Leptobrachella firthi) is known only from two localities in south-central Vietnam (Kon Tum and Quang Nam), although it likely occurs at least a little more widely.
The Annamite sticky frog (Kalophrynus cryptophonus) is known only from a small area of the southern Annamite Mountains in southern Vietnam (Lam Dong province).
The cricket bush frog (Raorchestes gryllus) is known from a few montane localities in south-central Vietnam.
The Laotian knobby newt (Tylototriton notialis) is known only from the Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area in central Laos (Khammouane province) and the Pu Hoat Proposed Nature Reserve in northern Vietnam (Nghe An province).
The Central Highlands of Vietnam
The Central Highlands (Cao nguyen Trung phan in Vietnamese) are a series of contiguous plateaus in southcentral Vietnam (Dak Lak, Dak Nong, Gia Lai, Kon Tum and Lam Dong provinces). They are surrounded by higher mountains of the southern Annamite Range.
The wrinkly skink (Vietnascincus rugosus) is known only from a single locality on the border of Gia Lai and Kon Tum provinces.
The Gia Lai reed snake (Calamaria gialaiensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from Kon Ka Kinh National Park in Gia Lai province. Sang’s reed snake (C. sangi) is known only from two specimens collected from Kon Tum province.
The marble-backed gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus marmoridorsum) is known only from a single locality in Gia Lai province. The vampire gliding tree frog (R. vampyrus) is known only from two localities in Lam Dong and Dak Nong provinces. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Buon Luoi horned frog (Megophrys hansi) is known only from a single locality in south-central Vietnam (Gia Lai province).
Appleby’s slender litter frog (Leptolalax applebyi) is known only from two localities in Quang Nam and Kon Tum provinces.
The pale-eyed large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium leucops) is known only from a few localities in Lang Dong, Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan, and Dak Nong provinces.
The Tay Nguyen Plateau is located in Gia Lai province.
The Tay Nguyen large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium xanthospilum) is known only from the Tay Nguyen Plateau.
The dusty-speckled rice frog (Microhyla pulverata) is known only from the Tay Nguyen Plateau.
The Kon Tum Plateau is located in Kon Tum province. Cuc’s mountain stream snake (Opisthotropis cucae) is known only from the Kon Tum Plateau.
Ryabov’s bug-eyed tree frog (Theloderma ryabovi) is known only from a single locality on the Kon Tum Plateau.
The Mang Canh odorous frog (Odorrana gigatympana) is known only from a small area of the Kon Tum Plateau.
The Lang Bian Plateau (also known as the Da Lat Plateau) is located in south-central Vietnam (Lam Dong province). It has been designated an Endemic Bird Area by Birdlife International.
The collared laughingthrush (Trochalopteron yersini) is an uncommon species known only from a handful of localities on the Lang Bian Plateau including Mount Lang Bian, Mount Bi Doup and Chu Yang Sin National Park.
The southern Vietnam box turtle (Cuora picturata) is confined to the eastern slopes of the Lang Bian Plateau, where it is seriously threatened by overcollection for use as food.
The Lang Bain bug-eyed tree frog (Theloderma palliatum) is known only from Bidoup Nui Ba National Park, but may range more widely.
The Lang Bain golden-backed frog (Hylarana montivaga) is known for certain only from a few areas of the Lang Bian Plateau, where it is threatened by agricultural expansion and overcollection for food.
The Bidoup dwarf litter frog (Leptobrachella bidoupensis) is known only from Bidoup Nui Ba National Park.
The Lang Bian rice frog (Microhyla fusca) is confined to the Lang Bian Plateau.
Mount Ba Na
Mount Ba Na is located in coastal central Vietnam (Thua Thien-Hue province), where it is isolated from the rest of the Annamite Mountain chain by lowlands.
The Ba Na tree frog (Kurixalus banaensis) is confined to the region of Mount Ba Na, where it was reported to be very common in the 1930s but has not been reported since.
Mount Ngoc Linh
Mount Ngoc Linh is an isolated mountain in south-central Vietnam (Quang Nam and Kon Tum provinces). Much of its fauna is believed to be endemic.
Sokolov’s shrew (Crocidura sokolovi) is known only from Mount Ngoc Linh.
Abramov’s reed snake (Calamaria abramovi) is known only from two specimens collected from Mount Ngoc Linh.
The misty bug-eyed tree frog (Theloderma nebulosum) is known only from a single adult specimen and some larvae collected on Mount Ngoc Linh.
The thorny foam-nest tree frog (Gracixalus lumarius) is known only from Mount Ngoc Linh.
The Ngoc Linh large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium ngoclinhense) is known only from Mount Ngoc Linh.
The thumbless rice frog (Microhyla nanapollexa) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Ngoc Linh.
Miscellaneous Mountains and Highlands
The Satpura Range is located in north-central India (Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgharh, and Odisha).
The sacred grove bush frog (Raorchestes sanctisilvaticus) is known only from two localities within the Maikal Hills in north-central India (Madhya Pradesh and Odisha).
The Singharh Plateau is located in western coastal India (Maharashtra).
The Kondana rat (Millardia kondana) is confined to a few localities on the Singharh Plateau.
The Chittagong Hills are located in south-eastern Bangladesh.
Cox’s Bazar danio (Devario anomalus) is known only from a single small stream within the southern Chittagong Hills.
The Kakhien Hills are located in north-eastern Myanmar.
The Kakhien Hills tiny frog (Nanorana feae) is known only from the Kakhien Hills.
The Bolaven Plateau is located in southern Laos (Champasak, Salavan, Sekong, and Attapeu provinces).
The Bolaven odorous frog (Odorrana bolavensis) and Buchard’s large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium buchardi) are each known only from a small area of the Bolaven Plateau. Lowland Tropical Moist Forests and Swamp Forests Tropical rainforest once covered much of South and South East Asia, although today only scattered fragments remain, chiefly in mountainous and limestone karst areas. Within the Oriental Region pockets of lowland rainforest are mainly to be found in Laos, Thailand and Cambodia.
The hinpoon limestone rat (Niviventer hinpoon) is confined to limestone karst forests in central Thailand (Saraburi, Lopburi, and Nakhon Sawan provinces).
Paulina’s limestone rat (Saxatilomys paulinae) is known only from specimens collected within the Khammouane Limestone NBCA in central Laos and from north-central Vietnam (Quang Binh province).
Edwards’ pheasant (Lophura edwardsi) is (or was) confined to the few remaining areas of lowland rainforest in central Vietnam, where it may already be extinct in the wild. Fortunately, there is a large captive population. A form previously known as the Hat Tinh pheasant (L. hatinhensis) is now known to be a colour variant, while the so-called ‘imperial pheasant’ is thought to be a naturally occurring hybrid between this species and the Annam silver pheasant (L. nycthemera annamensis), itself a threatened form confined to southern Vietnam. Another subspecies, Engelbach’s silver pheasant (L. n. engelbachi), is confined to a small area of southern Laos.
The rufous limestone babbler (Turdinus calcicola) is a type of passerine bird found only in the limestone hills of central Thailand (Saraburi province).
The Arakan forest turtle (Heosemys depressa) is confined to a small area of western Myanmar and south-eastern Bangladesh, where it is threatened by hunting for food and overcollection for the international pet trade.
The Goan day gecko (Cnemaspis goaensis) is known only from three lowland forest localities in western coastal India (Goa and Karnataka).
The ruby-eyed green pit viper (Trimeresurus rubeus) is known only from a few localities in southern Vietnam and eastern Cambodia (Mondolkiri province).
The Kanburi pit viper (Cryptelytrops kanburiensis) is known only from western Thailand (Kanchanaburi province).
The three-horned scaled pit viper (Protobothrops sieversorum) is known only from two localities within the limestone karst forests of eastern Laos and north-central Vietnam.
The Red River krait (Bungarus slowinskii) is a type of venomous snake known only from two localities in northern and central Vietnam.
Andrea’s keelback (Hebius andreae) is a type of nonvenomous snake known only from a single locality adjacent to Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in north-central Vietnam (Quang Binh province).
Smith’s rough water snake (Fimbrios smithi) is known only from a single specimen collected from lowland karst forest in the Annamite Mountains of central Vietnam.
Angel’s kukri snake (Oligodon macrurus) is confined to a small area of southern coastal Vietnam (Khanh Hoa and Ninh Thuan provinces). Morice’s kukri snake (O. moricei) is known only from a single locality in southern coastal Vietnam (Kranh Hoa province). Hampton’s kukri snake (O. hamptoni) is known only from two specimens collected in northern Myanmar during the early twentieth century. The red-striped kukri snake (O. erythrorhachis) is known only from two localities in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh). The Annam kukri snake (O. annamensis) is known only from two specimens collected during the mid-twentieth century from southern Vietnam (Lam Dang province).
Kundu’s wolf snake (Lycodon kundui) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1940s from south-central Myanmar. Repeated surveys of the locality have failed to find it since. Rendahl’s wolf snake (L. paucifasciatus) is known only from a small area of central Vietnam (Thua Thien-Hue and Quang Binh provinces), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Nguyenvansang’s snake (Colubroelaps nguyenvansangi) is known only from two specimens collected in southern Vietnam (Binh Phuoc and Lam Dong provinces).
Flower’s worm snake (Gerrhopilus floweri) is known only from fruit plantations near the city of Bangkok, central Thailand.
The Rakhine Yoma toad (Duttaphrynus crocus) is known only from two, closely situated localities in southern Myanmar. Stuart’s toad (D. stuarti) is known only from a few localities within a small area on northern Myanmar (Kachin state) and north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and possibly Assam). Helen’s gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus helenae) is known only from two widely separated forest fragments in southern Vietnam (Binh Thuan and Dong Nai provinces).
The bamboo bug-eyed tree frog (Theloderma bambusicolum) is known only from a small area of southern Vietnam (Binh Phuoc, Dak Nong, Lam Dong, and Dong Nai provinces). The slender bug-eyed tree frog (T. petilum) is known only from a small area of north-western Vietnam (Dien Bien province) and northern Laos (Phongsaly province).
The Seima horned frog (Megophrys synoria) is known only from the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area in Cambodia (Mondolkiri province).
The Gundia leaping frog (Indirana gundia) and the Kempholey leaping frog (I. longicrus) are both known only from a single locality each in south-western India (Karnataka).
Annandale’s oriental frog (Ingerana borealis) remains relatively widespread in the lowland forests of north-eastern India, Bhutan and possibly Bangladesh, but is everywhere under threat by water pollution and loss of habitat.
The Chilapata frog (Minervarya chilapata) is known only from the Chilapata Forest Reserve in north-eastern India (West Bengal).
The Goa caecilian (Gegeneophis goaensis) is known only from three specimens collected in south-western India (Goa). The Krishna Farms caecilian (G. krishni) is known only from a single locality in south-western coastal India (Karnataka). Nadkarni’s caecilian (G. nadkarnii) is known only from the Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary in south-western India (Goa).
Lowland Tropical Dry Forests and Shrublands
Areas of lowland tropical dry forest have largely disappeared from South and South-East Asia, although there are still scattered patches remaining in parts of India and Indo-China.
The Vellore day gecko (Cnemaspis otai) is known only from scrub jungle areas in the town of Vellore, south-eastern India (Tamil Nadu). The Kolhapur Hills day gecko (C. kolhapurensis) is known only from the Kolhapur Hills in centralwestern India (Maharashtra).
The Vagheshwari Mata house gecko (Hemidactylus gujaratensis) is known only from a single temple in western coastal India (Gujarat). Malcolm Smith’s house gecko (H. malcolmsmithi) is known only from a small area of northern India (Punjab).
The Poona skink (Eurylepis poonaensis) is known only from a few specimens collected in central-western India (Maharashtra).
Blanford’s supple skink (Eutropis innotata) is known only from a few, mostly historical records in east-central India (Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh).
Ashwamedh’s supple skink (E. ashwamedhi) is confined to a small area of eastern coastal India (Andhra Pradesh).
The pygmy writhing skink (Subdoluseps frontoparietale) is known only from two specimens collected some 40 years appear within a small area of central Thailand (Lopburi province).
Roule’s snake skink (Isopachys roulei) is known only from two disjunct localities in south-central Thailand (Chonburi and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces).
The Myanmar short-tailed python (Python kyaiktiyo) is confined to secondary scrub in southern Myanmar (Mon State).
Ozaki’s blind snake (Indotyphlops ozakiae) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve in central Thailand (Nakhon Ratchasima province).
Seshachari’s caecilian (Gegeneophis seshachari) and the Amboli caecilian (G. danieli) are each known only from a single locality in western coastal India (Maharashtra).
Tropical Savannas and Grasslands
Grasslands and savannas within the Oriental Region once covered a large part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, extending across India from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, with smaller regions found patchily in Indochina. Sadly, much of these areas have been changed into deserts through overgrazing by domestic cattle.
The Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis) is a type of bustard found in north-eastern India from Uttar Pradesh to Assam, through Nepal and, at least historically, into Bangladesh. There is another disjunct population in central Cambodia and possibly adjacent southern Vietnam. The species has disappeared from most of this range due to loss of habitat and only survives now in scattered pockets. In 2017 the total population was estimated at less than 1000.
The swamp grass-babbler (Laticilla cinerascens) is a notably rare species known from north-eastern India (Assam and Bihar) and parts of northern Bangladesh, although there have been records from the latter country since the early 1970s. In India it is scattered into small populations that are under threat from loss of habitat.
The marsh babbler (Pellorneum palustre) is found in north-eastern India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya) and eastern Bangladesh, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The bristled grassbird (Chaetornis striata) inhabits tall, grass-covered marshlands in the Indian subcontinent, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
Seasonally Flooded and Riverine Grasslands
Remnant areas of seasonally flooded forest are to be found in India and Indo-China.
Schomburgk’s deer (Rucervus schomburgki) was a graceful species similar in appearance to the barasingha (R. duvaucelii) previously discussed. It lived in the swampy plains of central Thailand, in particular the Chao Phraya River valley near Bangkok, where in the late nineteenth century it was apparently ‘not uncommon’. During the rainy season flooding would force herds together onto higher ground that often turned into islands, where they became easy targets for hunters. However, it was the commercial production of rice for export which began in the late nineteenth century that appears to have doomed the animals, leading as it did to the loss of nearly all the grassland and swamp areas on which they depended. The species appears to have undergone a very rapid decline after 1910. The last-known wild individual was shot in 1932, and the last captive died in 1938. Only one mounted specimen remains, although there are still hundreds of skulls and antlers that had been taken as trophies, and which still show up occasionally in the Chinese ‘traditional medicine’ trade. The swamp barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii) is a large deer adapted to the tall, flooded grasslands of the Indo- Gangetic plain north of the Ganges. It has declined considerably owing to the cultivation of the marshy grasslands. Only a few thousand still survive in India (West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh) and in the Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve in southwestern Nepal. It has been extirpated from Pakistan. Another subspecies, the eastern barasingha (R. d. ranjitsinhi) historically occurred across the Brahmaputra plain in India and Bangladesh, but is now confined to a small area of Assam. The vast majority, about 1150, live in Kaziranga National Park. The Manipur brow-antlered deer (R. eldii eldii) has long been confined to the floating marshy grasslands on the shores of Loktak Lake in eastern India (Manipur), where it is protected within Keibul Lamjao National Park. In the 1950s it had been reduced to just a few herds, although today the population is more or less stable at around 250.
The black-breasted parrotbill (Paradoxornis flavirostris) was historically found in Bangladesh, eastern Nepal and northern India but now appears to be confined to a few localities within the Brahmaputra Valley in the latter country (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam).
The Myanmar Jerdon’s babbler (Chrysomma altirostre altirostre) is a type of passerine bird that was thought to have become extinct in 1941, but was rediscovered in 2015 in southcentral Myanmar.
Terai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands
The Terai-Duar Savannas and grasslands are a narrow lowland region, about 25 km wide, located at the base of the Himalayas in Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal and India (West Bengal and Assam). It consists of a mosaic of tall riverside grasslands, savannas, and forests.
The pygmy hog (Porcula salvania) is the smallest and rarest of the world’s suids. Nocturnal and the size of a hare, it is difficult to detect and known only from a few localities in northern West Bengal and north-western Assam, although most likely it ranged at one time throughout the tall, swampy grasslands of the Terai-Duar in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Loss of habitat due to cultivation and grazing resulted in a marked decline during the mid-twentieth century. Today it is now largely confined to small, isolated pockets in and around Manas National Park in north-western Assam, where the total wild population is currently thought to number less than 150. A further 16 captive-bred animals were released in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary in 2008, and similar reintroductions have been planned for other protected areas in Assam.
The hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus) formerly occurred in areas of elephant grass in the Himalayan foothills from Uttar Pradesh through southern Nepal, northern West Bengal, Assam, and into Bangladesh. Like the pygmy hog it has suffered considerably from habitat destruction and degradation, and indeed by the 1960s was thought by many to be extinct. In 1971, however, a live specimen was captured in the Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in north-western Assam. It is currently thought to persist throughout much of its former range, although sporadically.
The swamp francolin (Francolinus gularis) is a type of partridge historically found in the wet grasslands of the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages of north-eastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. It has been extirpated from much of its range due mainly to loss of habitat.
The slender-billed babbler (Chatarrhaea longirostris) was fairly widespread and common during the nineteenth century but is today confined to three disjunct areas (one in central Nepal and two others in north-eastern India), where it mainly occurs in national parks.
The Terai Jerdon’s babbler (Chrysomma altirostre griseigularis) is a type of passerine bird confined to the Terai of northeastern India and western Nepal.
Finn’s weaver (Ploceus megarhynchus) is a type of passerine bird endemic to the Terai of the northern Indian subcontinent, where it is known from three disjunct populations.
Dry Grasslands
The dry grasslands of the Oriental Region are of two main types: steppe-like plains partly covered by shrubs, and somewhat richer grasslands, bushy country or grassy plains with scattered thin woods.
The great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) is a large, ostrich-like species that formerly ranged widely over the arid plains of the Indian subcontinent. Heavy hunting and habitat loss due to cultivation and overgrazing have reduced it to a few pockets of suitable habitat, mainly in central and western India. In 1969 the total population was estimated at 1260, but had declined to around 250 by 2011 and to as few as 150 in 2018.
The lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus), the smallest of the bustards, was historically widespread and common across the Indian subcontinent but has been steadily declining since the 1870s due to hunting and habitat destruction. Today it is largely confined to areas of central and western India.
Deserts and Xeric Shrublands
Important deserts and xeric shrubland areas within the Oriental Region include the Thar Desert (a.k.a. the Great Indian Desert) and the Rann of Kutch, a large area of salt marshes combined with arid grasslands and saline deserts located mostly in north-western India (Gujarat), as well as in the southern tip of Sindh province, Pakistan. The latter is divided into two main areas: the Great Rann of Kutch, and the Little Rann of Kutch. Together they serve as an important refuge for many species.
The Indian wild ass or khur (Equus hemionus khur) once ranged from south-eastern Iran through southern Afghanistan and Pakistan (Sindh and Balochistan provinces) into western India. Heavily hunted at one time, its last refuge became the Little Rann of Kutch where, in 1947, the population was estimated at between 2000 and 5000. From 1958 to 1960, however, an infectious disease (South African horse sickness) had caused it to crash suddenly, and in 1969 an aerial census assessed the total number at just 400. The Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary was established in 1972 and helped considerably with the recovery. Today some 4800 live within the sanctuary and, increasingly, areas beyond. Sadly, the international boundary with Pakistan remains fenced, thus preventing any possibility of the animals reclaiming areas west.
The white-browed bushchat (Saxicola macrorhynchus) is endemic to the arid areas of the north-western India and eastern Pakistan. It has disappeared from much of its historic range due to loss of habitat.
The white-striped house gecko (Hemidactylus albofasciatus) is confined to a few localities in coastal west-central India (Maharashtra).
Russell’s legless skink (Barkudia melanosticta) is known only from a single locality in central-eastern coastal India (Andra Pradesh).
Sharma’s racer (Coluber bholanathi) is a type of snake known only from a few rocky hillocks and outcrops in southcentral India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana).
Isolated Caves, Springs and Wells
The Oriental Region is relatively rich in subterranean habitats, particularly limestone karst caves and underground rivers.
The Kolar leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros hypophyllus) is now confined to a single roosting cave in south-central India (Karnataka). Durga Das’ leaf-nosed bat (H. durgadasi) is confined to a small area of north-central India (Madhya Pradesh). The shield-nosed leaf-nosed bat (H. scutinares) is known only from a few karst localities in central Laos and central Vietnam. The Phou Khao Khouay leaf-nosed bat (H. khaokhouayensis) is known from a small area of central Laos (Vientiane province) and from the Cat Ba Biosphere Reserve in north-eastern Vietnam. The Thai leaf-nosed bat (H. halophyllus) is found patchily throughout western and central Thailand. All are threatened by disturbance of their roosting caves, habitat destruction, and (in some area) hunting for food.
Kitti’s hog-nosed bat (Craseonycteris thonglongyai) is the smallest of the bats and arguably the world’s smallest mammal, being roughly the size of a bumblebee. The species is confined to limestone caves on the Thailand–Myanmar border, where it is threatened by collectors who catch large numbers to make taxidermy mounts that are sold to tourists.
Pyadalin Cave bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus chrysopylos) is confined to a single cave within Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary in north-central Myanmar (Shan State).
The cave gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus spelaeus) is known only from limestone karst caves in and around the Khammouane Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in central Laos (Khammouane province).
The cave brook carp (Neolissochilus subterraneus) is known only from subterranean streams within Tham Phra Wangdaeng Cave, west-central Thailand (Pitsanulok province).
The blind cave barb (Poropuntius speleops) is confined to an underground stream system in Phatewada Cave, within the Phu Khiew Wildlife Sanctuary, northern Thailand (Chaiyaphum province).
Musae’s bangana (Speolabeo musaei) is known only from a few specimens collected from the underground course of the Xe Bang Fai River in central Laos.
The Khammouane cavefish (Troglocyclocheilus khammouanensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1998 from central Laos (Khammouane province).
Alikunhi’s blind catfish (Horaglanis alikunhii) is known only from a single specimen collected from subterranean wells in the village of Parappukara, in Kerala, south-western India. The Western Ghats blind cave catfish (H. krishnai) is confined to wells, where it migrates from one to another through underground channels.
Several stone loaches of the genus Schistura are threatened by declining water levels and/or overcollection for the international pet trade. Dean Smart’s stone loach (S. deansmarti) is known only from subterranean streams in Tham Phra Sai Ngam Cave, in the Nernmaprang karst formation within Thung Salaeng Luang National Park, northern Thailand (Phitsanulok province). Spies’ stone loach (S. spiesi) is known only from Tham Prawangdaeng Cave in northern Thailand (Phitsanulok province). The Laotian stone loach (S. kaysonei) is known only from specimens collected from subterreanean steams within a cave system in Laos (Khammouane province). Spekul’s stone loach (S. spekuli) is confined to a single limestone cave in the centre of Chin Chu Chai village, northern Vietnam (Lai Chau province). Jarutanin’s stone loach (S. jarutanini) is known only from specimens collected from an underground stream in Lam Klong Ngu Cave, western Thailand (Kanchanaburi province).
The Sai Yok Noi stone loach (Nemacheilus troglocataractus) is an eyeless species known only from a single subterranean stream within Sai Yok Noi Cave, in the Mae Klong River drainage of west-central Thailand (Kanchanaburi province). The Calicut swamp eel (Rakthamichthys digressus), Rosen’s swamp eel (R. roseni) and Eapen’s swamp eel (R. eapeni) are all known only from subterranean wells in southwestern coastal India (Kerala).
The Pang Mapha Karst Formation
The Pang Mapha karst formation is located in north-western Thailand (Mae Hongson province). It has a large system of underground caves, some of which are connected.
The waterfall-climbing cave fish (Cryptotora thamicola) is known only from eight subterranean sites within the Pang Mapha karst formation. The total population is thought to be less than 2000.
The Pang Mapha stone loach (Schistura oedipus) is also confined to streams within the Pang Mapha cave system.
Lakes, Rivers and Marshes
Mainland Asia features a number of large river systems, but in general is much poorer in lakes than is Eurasia. There are, however, many swamps along the watercourses and in the deltas. Because of the disappearance of wetlands, populations of aquatic vertebrates, mostly birds, are becoming increasingly threatened. The vast rice fields in South East Asia have become an important habitat for many species.
The Ganges River dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) was formerly found in large groups in both the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers as well as their tributaries, but is now seriously threatened by pollution and dam construction.
The Sindh smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata sindica) is confined to the wetlands of north-eastern Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh provinces).
The giant ibis (Thaumatibis gigantea) is a very rare wading bird nowadays mostly confined to northern and eastern Cambodia, with a few birds from the same population occasionally observed in southern Laos and southern Vietnam. The species formerly occurred in south-eastern and peninsular Thailand but has disappeared from there. In 2015 the total population was estimated at less than 300.
The greater adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius) is a type of large scavenging stork that was historically widespread and common across much of South and continental South East Asia, but which declined dramatically during the first half of the twentieth century due to habitat destruction, hunting and egg collection, and improved human sanitation. Today only three breeding populations are known, two in north-eastern India and another in Cambodia. The species disperses widely at other times.
The white-bellied heron (Ardea insignis) was historically known from the eastern Himalayan foothills of north-eastern India, Nepal and Bhutan through Bangladesh, much of Myanmar and south-western China (Yunnan and possibly Tibet). Highly sensitive to human disturbance, the species has been extirpated in many areas due to habitat destruction.
The pink-headed duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) historically had an extensive but discontinuous range in the wetlands of north-eastern India, adjacent areas of Bangladesh, north-western Myanmar and perhaps Nepal, where it seems never to have been common. Intensively hunted, the last known wild specimens (a flock of six birds, of which one was shot) were observed at Lake Manroona in 1947, with a few others surviving around the same time in captivity. While there have been occasional reports of its continued existence in recent years these appear to be based on misidentifications, and the species is most likely extinct.
The marsh crocodile or mugger (Crocodylus palustris) is a medium-sized species found from southern Iran and Pakistan to the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. It has become locally extinct over large parts of its range, with viable populations now only occurring in protected areas.
The gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), a fish-eating crocodile from the slow-moving rivers of southern Asia, was long exploited for its skin. Historically it ranged from the Indus River in present-day Pakistan to, perhaps, the Irrawaddy River in Myanmar. It has now been extirpated from the latter country and perhaps Pakistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan as well owing to habitat alteration and other causes, and is now confined to three widely separated subpopulations in northern India and Nepal.
The peacock softshell turtles (Nilssonia) are endemic to the rivers of South and South East Asia, where they are threatened by overcollection for East Asian food markets. Gray’s peacock softshell turtle (N. hurum) remains fairly widespread in India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. Cuvier’s peacock softshell turtle (N. gangetica) is found in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Leith’s peacock softshell turtle (N. leithii) is found in peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Odisha). The eastern peacock softshell turtle (N. formosa) is found in Myanmar and possibly Thailand.
The Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle (Chitra indica) remains widespread in Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh but in very low densities, even in protected areas. It is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
The Burmese flapshell turtle (Lissemys scutata) is a little known species from the Irrawaddy and Salween river drainages of Myanmar, north-eastern Thailand, and possibly southwestern China (Yunnan). It is traded in large numbers in East Asian food markets.
Roofed turtles of the genus Batagur are a group of large river turtles from South and South East Asia. Historically very common, they have consequently been regarded as a useful food resource and have been driven to the point of extinction by intensive slaughter and overcollection of their eggs. The Burmese roofed turtle (B. trivittata) was long thought to be extinct, not having been reliably reported since 1935 despite mass trade of riverine turtles between Myanmar and China. It was rediscovered in small numbers in 2002, however, and although functionally extinct in the wild survives in captivity. The three-striped roofed turtle (B. dhongoka) from India and Bangladesh has disappeared from much of its former range. The red-crowned roofed turtle (B. kachuga) from India, Nepal and Bangladesh is also highly threatened.
The Assamese roofed turtle (Pangshura sylhetensis) is a rare species known only from a few specimens collected in parts of Bangladesh, north-eastern India (Assam) and possibly Bhutan.
The crowned river turtle (Hardella thurjii) occurs in the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus river drainages of Pakistan, northern India and Bangladesh, where it is considered threatened by various factors.
Spengler’s black-breasted leaf turtle (Geoemyda spengleri), while still relatively widespread in mainland South East Asia, is heavily threatened by overcollection for food, the international pet trade, and for use in ‘traditional medicine’.
The Burmese eyed turtle (Morenia ocellata) is found in Myanmar and possibly southern China (Yunnan), where it was so heavily depleted by overharvesting for food that it actually disappeared from food markets by the end of the twentieth century. The Indian eyed turtle (M. petersi) is found in northeastern India and Bangladesh.
The four-eyed turtle (Sacalia quadriocellata) is found in southern China, Hainan, and parts of Laos and Vietnam. The species is threatened by overcollection for its shells and bones, which are used in ‘traditional medicine’.
Two South East Asian subspecies of big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) are threatened by overcollection for use as food. The Pegu bigheaded turtle (P. m. peguense) is found in Myanmar and Thailand, while Shiu’s big-headed turtle (P. m. shiui) occurs in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
The giant Asian pond turtle (Heosemys grandis) is found in Cambodia, Vietnam and parts of Laos, where it has been greatly reduced in number due to overcollection for Asian food markets.
The black pond turtle (Geoclemys hamiltonii) occurs in the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river drainages of Pakistan, northern India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Widely collected for local consumption up to the 1980s, it is now threatened primarily by harvesting for East Asian food markets as well as for use in the international pet trade.
The Annam pond turtle (Mauremys annamensis) was historically endemic to a small area of central Vietnam, where it was reportedly abundant in the 1930s. Heavily harvested, all field surveys after 1941 failed to locate it although the species continued to be seen occasionally in food markets. In 2006 a small wild population was discovered in Quang Nam province) and a few are being kept and bred in captivity.
Jagor’s water snake (Enhydris jagorii) is known with certainty only from a small, human-modified water system in north-central Thailand.
The Mada paddy frog (Micryletta erythropoda) is known only from wetlands within the Ma Da Forest in southern Vietnam (Dong Nai province).
Thin Thin’s stream toad (Ansonia thinthinae) is known only from the Tanintharyi Nature Reserve in peninsular Myanmar, but may occur in adjacent areas of Thailand.
Swan’s burrowing frog (Sphaerotheca swani) is known only from a small area of sandy marshland in south-eastern Nepal.
The roughback whipray (Fluvitrygon kittipongi) is confined to the Mae Klong and Chao Phraya rivers of southwest- central Thailand.
The ornate-finned snakehead (Channa ornatipinnis) is known only from a single locality in south-central Myanmar (Rakhine state). The Malabar snakehead (C. diplogramma) is known only from a few localities within the Western Ghats of south-western India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu states). Both are threatened by overfishing and habitat destruction.
The Arakan snakehead (Channa pulchra) is a type of fish confined to streams in the Arakan Mountains of south-central Myanmar.
The giant carp (Catlocarpio siamensis) is another enormous species that can reach up to three metres in length. Historically found in the larger rivers and floodplain areas in the Mae Klong, Mekong and Chao Phraya drainages of Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, it has been severely depleted by overfishing. Wild populations no longer occur in the Chao Phraya River, and the species is very rare in the Thai and Laos Mekong and its associated tributaries.
The Sandkhol carp (Thynnichthys sandkhol) occurs in a number of river systems and reservoirs in peninsular India, but is everywhere threatened by dams, pollution, and introduced species.
The Nukta carp (Schismatorhynchos nukta) occurs in the Krishna and Kaveri river drainages of south-western India, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
The finely striped shuttle-like carp (Luciocyprinus striolatus) is a large, predatory species known from a few river drainages in Laos and Vietnam, and at least formerly from southern China as well. It is threatened primarily by illegal dynamite fishing within the deep pools that it favours.
The small-scaled mud carp (Cirrhinus microlepis) was historically known from the Chao Phraya and Mekong river drainages of Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. The Chao Phraya population was extirpated decades ago due to pollution, damming and overfishing, and the species is still commercially targeted in the Mekong. The Mrigal mud carp (C. cirrhosus) was historically found throughout the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri river drainages of south-western India, but suffered major decline due to competition with introduced fish species. Today the only part of its native range where it still survives is in the Kaveri River, although it has also been introduced to many countries outside of India.
The Mandalay mud carp (Henicorhynchus inornatus) is known only from a specimen collected from a market in Myanmar in the 1990s, of uncertain provenance.
The Chittagong perch (Badis chittagongis) is known only from a few hillstreams in south-eastern Bangladesh.
The Siamese tiger perch (Datnioides pulcher) was historically widespread in Indochina within the Chao Phraya, Mae Klong and Mekong river drainages, but has suffered considerable declines due to overcollection for the international pet trade. The species has been extirpated from Thailand and in a number of other areas.
The Canara pearlspot (Etroplus canarensis) is a rare type of cichlid confined to the Kumaradhara and Nethravati rivers in south-western India (Karnataka). It is much sought-after for use in the international aquarium trade.
Pointon’s fish (Oxygaster pointoni) occurs in the Chao Phraya and Mekong river drainages of Thailand, Cambodia and Laos, where it is threatened by pollution and damming.
Chaudhuri’s kingfish (Semiplotus cirrhosus) is known only from its original collection in 1919 from northern Myanmar.
Three barbs of the genus Dawkinsia are endemic to the Western Ghats of south-western India. The mascara barb (D. assimilis) and the Aruli barb (D. arulius) are both confined to a few rivers in Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Rohan’s barb (D. rohani) is known only from a few hillstreams in Tamil Nadu.
Several barbs of the genus Puntius from the Western Ghats of southern and south-western India are seriously threatened by habitat destruction and degradation. The Deccan barb (P. deccanensis) is known only from a single locality in Maharastra. Recent surveys have failed to locate the species, and it may possibly be extinct. The Mahecola barb (P. mahecola) is a rare species confined to a few rivers in Kerala. The Arenatus barb (P. arenatus) is confined to the southern Western Ghats. The Mudumalai barb (P. mudumalaiensis) is confined to a few localities in Tamil Nadu. The crescent barb (P. crescentus) is known only from a few localities in Karnataka and Kerala.
The Boloven barb (Poropuntius bolovenensis) is confined to the Boloven Plateau in southern Laos (Champasak province), where it is threatened by overfishing and dam construction. The yellow-tail brook barb (P. deauratus) is found patchily in the coastal river drainages of southern Vietnam.
The Channa barb (Eechathalakenda ophicephalus) is confined to hillstreams within the Western Ghats of south-western India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and introduced fish species.
Suvatti’s barb (Hypsibarbus suvattii) is known for certain only from the Mae Klong River of Thailand, where it is known to be declining. Sporadic and rather unreliable records from Vietnam, Cambodia and southern Thailand may represent remnants of a once-continuous distribution pre-dating the last glacial period.
Several barbs of the genus Hypselobarbus are endemic to India, where they are threatened by overfishing, habitat destruction and pollution. The beautiful little barb (H. pulchellus) is known only from its original collection in 1870 from south-western India (Karnataka). Surveys of this locality have failed to record the species, and it is most likely extinct. The Canara barb (H. lithopidos) is known only from museum specimens collected from south-western India (Karnataka) and was last recorded in the 1940s. It is possibly extinct. The Curmuca barb (H. curmuca) is confined to highland rivers and streams of the Western Ghats in south-western India (Kerala). The red Canarese barb (H. thomassi) is confined to the Western Ghats of south-western India (Karnataka and Kerala). Dobson’s barb (H. dobsoni) and the Kolus barb (H. kolus) are both found widely but patchily in southern India (Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra). The humpback barb (H. mussullah) is known only from a few isolated localities within the Krishna River and possibly the Godavari River in south-western India (Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala).
Three species of glass barb (Laubuka) are threatened by loss of habitat. The striped glass barb (L. fasciata) is confined to a few rivers in south-western India (Kerala). The Siamese glass barb (L. siamensis) is confined to peninsular Thailand. The leaping glass barb (L. caeruleostigmata) is found in the Mae Klong, Mekong and Chao Phraya drainages of Thailand, southern Laos and Cambodia.
Several species of sawfin barb (Pethia) are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation. The Chennai sawfin barb (P. sharmai) is known only from two freshwater ponds in south-western India (Tamil Nadu). The ornate sawfin barb (P. ornata) is known only from the Lokchou River in northeastern India (Manipur) and from another locality in Myanmar. The indigo sawfin barb (P. setnai) is known only from two river drainages within the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Goa and Karnataka). The long-lined sawfin barb (P. macrogramma) and the Nan Kywe Chaung sawfin barb (P. nankyweensis) are both known only from a few streams near Myitkyina in northern Myanmar (Kachin state). The Shalyni sawfin barb (P. shalynius) is confined to hillstreams in north-eastern India (Meghalaya).
The red line torpedo barb (Sahyadria denisonii) and the Chalakkudy barb (S. chalakkudiensis) are both confined to a few isolated streams within the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Kerala and Karnataka), where they are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international aquarium trade.
Evezard’s baril (Barilius evezardi) is known only from a few historical records over a wide area of southern India. Jerdon’s baril (B. canarensis) is confined to a few localities in the Western Ghats of south-western India (Kerala and Karnataka), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international aquarium trade.
The Putitor mahseer (Tor putitora) is naturally distributed throughout the rivers and associated reservoirs of the south Himalayan drainage, from Pakistan (and possibly Afghanistan) to Myanmar. Populations have also been introduced into some Himalayan lakes, parts of peninsular India, and even to New Guinea. However, the species is everywhere under threat by overfishing and loss of habitat. The Malabar mahseer (T. malabaricus) is confined to a few rivers in southern India.
The Wayanad mahseer (Barbodes wynaadensis) is confined to upland streams and rivers within a small area of the Western Ghats in south-western India (Karnataka and Kerala), where it is seriously threatened by overfishing and habitat degradation.
The Mekong fighting betta (Betta smaragdina) is found over much of the Mekong River drainage in central and eastern Thailand, Laos and northern Cambodia. The Siamese fighting betta (B. splendens), a popular aquarium species the world over, is endemic to the Mae Klong and Chao Phraya drainages of west-central Thailand, including the Isthmus of Kra.
The black paradise fish (Macropodus spechti) is a type of gourami known only from the Thu Bon and Houng river drainages of central Vietnam.
Day’s paradise fish (Pseudosphromenus dayi) occurs in the Western Ghats and the coastal areas of south-western India, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Jaintia danio (Danio jaintianensis) is confined to streams within the Jaintia Hills of north-eastern India (Meghalaya).
The scarlet chameleonfish (Dario dario) is known only from tributary streams in the Brahmaputra drainage of northern India (West Bengal and Assam), although it may occur as well in Bhutan. It is likely threatened by habitat degradation and overcollection for the international aquarium trade.
Several species of danio (Devario) are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international aquarium trade. McLelland’s danio (D. ostreographus) is known only from nineteenth-century historical records from north-eastern India (Assam and West Bengal). The Nilgiri danio (D. neilgherriensis) is known only from a few lakes and streams in south-western India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala). Hora’s danio (D. acuticephala) is known only from two localities in northeastern India (Manipur and Nagaland). The Assamese danio (D. assamensis) is known only from a few localities in northeastern India (Assam). The Manipur danio (D. manipurensis) is known only from single locality in north-eastern India (Manipur). Myer’s danio (D. strigillifer) is known only from two localities in central and northern Myanmar.
The Cardamom garra (Garra hughi), Periyar garra (G. surendranathanii), Kalakad garra (G. kalakadensis) and Silent Valley garra (G. menoni) are all confined to montane streams within the Western Ghats of south-western India. The panda garra (G. flavatra) is known only from three localities within the Arakan Mountains of south-western Myanmar. The Karen garra (G. imberbis) is confined to hillstreams within the Karen Hills of eastern Myanmar (Kayah state). The Hai Van Pass garra (G. apogon) is known only from creeks within the Hai Van Pass of central Vietnam.
Two species of freshwater pufferfish, the Malabar pufferfish (Carinotetraodon travancoricus) and the dwarf Malabar puffer (C. imitator), are both confined to a few rivers in coastal south-western India (Kerala and southern Karnataka), where they are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international aquarium trade.
The Deccan labeo (Labeo potail) remains fairly widespread within the Western Ghats of south-western India but has undergone considerable declines due to habitat destruction and degradation, overfishing, and introduced species.
The lipped algae-eater (Horalabiosa joshuai) and the Palani algae-eater (H. palaniensis) are both known only from fast-flowing streams in south-western India.
Krempf’s sharpbelly (Hemiculter krempfi) is known only from the Cai and Da Rang rivers of central Vietnam (Khanh Hoa and Phu Yen provinces).
The South Asian river shark (Glyphis gangeticus) is found within a narrow band of coastal rivers and estuaries of eastern and western India and western Bangladesh, where it is seriously threatened by overfishing and pollution.
The redtail shark (Epalzeorhynchos bicolor) is a popular and common aquarium fish that was historically found in the lower Mae Klong, Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong drainages of Thailand. At one time thought to be extinct in the wild, most likely due to overcollection for the aquarium trade, it is now believed to survive within a small area of the Chao Phraya. The redfin shark (E. munense) is known from the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Mae Klong drainages of Thailand, Cambodia and Laos, where it is threatened mainly by pollution. The species is rare within the aquarium trade and is not known to be bred in commercial farms.
The Siamese sharkminnow (Balantiocheilos ambusticauda) was historically known from the Mae Klong and Chao Phraya drainages of north-central Thailand. The species was severely impacted by overfishing, collection for the international aquarium trade and habitat destruction, and has not been recorded either in the wild or in captivity since 1974. It may be extinct.
The Laotian sharkminnow (Osteochilus striatus) is found in the Xe Bangfai and Nam Mang drainages of northern and central Laos, where it is threatened by habitat degradation and dam construction.
The Ratnagiri minnow (Parapsilorhynchus discophorus) and the elongated minnow (P. elongatus) are both confined to streams within the northern Western Ghats of southwestern India, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.
Rahman’s torrent minnow (Psilorhynchus rahmani) is known only from a single small hillstream located north of Chittagong in south-eastern Bangladesh. The Melissa torrent minnow (P. melissa) and the Ann Chaung torrent minnow (P. pavimentatus) are both known only from the headwaters of the Ann Chaung drainage, on the western slopes of the Arakan Mountains in western Myanmar. Gokky’s torrent minnow (P. gokkyi) and the Man Chaung torrent minnow (P. piperatus) are each known only from a single locality on the eastern slopes of the Arakan Mountains, western Myanmar.
Pierre’s labeo (Labeo pierrei) is a migratory species that is widespread in the Mekong and Chao Praya river drainages, but has declined extensively due to overfishing.
Miller’s goby (Rhinogobius milleri) is known only from small creeks within the Nam Mat and Nam Mo river drainages of north-eastern Laos. The Huong Son goby (R. vinhensis) is known only from creeks and streams within the Annamite Mountains of north-central Vietnam (Ha Tinh province).
The Cuc Phong sheatfish (Pterocryptis cucphuongensis) is known only from the Luong River drainage in northern Vietnam (Than Hoa province). The Malabar sheatfish (P. wynaadensis) is found widely but patchily in the Western Ghats of south-western India, where it is threatened by destructive fishing practices and pollution.
Four shark catfish of the genus Pangasius are seriously threatened by overfishing, pollution and dam construction. Sanitwong’s shark catfish (P. sanitwongsei) is confined to the Chao Phraya and Mekong drainages in Cambodia, southwestern China (Yunnan), Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, where it has been depleted to the point of extinction. The Myanmar shark catfish (P. myanmar) is known from the Irrawaddy and Salween drainages in Myanmar. The elongated shark catfish (P. elongatus) is found widely but patchily in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, where it is everywhere uncommon. Krempf’s shark catfish (P. krempfi) is a freshwater and marine species that feeds in coastal waters of the South China Sea and migrates up the Mekong River to spawn.
The Siamese flat-barbelled catfish (Platytropius siamensis) historically occurred in the Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong river drainages of south-central Thailand. Damming, canalization, pollution and the reclamation of wetlands around Bangkok all contributed to its decline, and the species has not been recorded since the late 1970s despite numerous surveys. It is most likely extinct.
Children’s catfish (Silonia childreni) is confined to the Western Ghats of south-western India, where it has been recorded from the Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri rivers. It has undergone a significant decline due to overfishing and habitat destruction.
The iridescent catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) is still found sporadically throughout the Chao Phraya, Mae Klong and mid to lower Mekong drainages of Indochina, but is everywhere threatened by overfishing. It is a very common aquaculture species, however, particularly in Vietnam and Thailand, and has been widely introduced outside of its native range (e.g. Myanmar and Indonesia).
The sun catfish (Horabagrus brachysoma) is found patchily in lakes, rivers and backwaters in south-western India (Kerala and Karnataka), where it is threatened by overfishing and habitat degradation.
The Quang Binh catfish (Hemibagrus centralus) is known only from hillstreams within the Annamite Mountains of central Vietnam (Quang Binh province).
Mitchell’s catfish (Pseudeutropius mitchelli) is confined to a few rivers in the Western Ghats of south-western India (Kerala), where it is threatened mainly by habitat destruction and degradation.
Bocourt’s catfish (Mystus bocourti) remains fairly widespread in the Chao Phraya and Mekong drainages of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, but is everywhere rare and declining due to damming and pollution.
Hamilton’s airbreathing catfish (Clarias magur) remains fairly widespread within the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainages of northern India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh, but suffered considerable declines due to overfishing, loss of habitat and introduced species.
The Thirumurthi airsac catfish (Heteropneustes longipectoralis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1990s in an irrigation reservoir of the Thirumurthi Dam, within the Anaimalai Hills of south-western India (Tamil Nadu).
The Xiangkhouang bat-catfish (Oreoglanis macronemus) is known only from four specimens collected in the mid 1920s from the Xiangkhouang Plateau of northern Laos.
The short-finned mountain catfish (Glyptothorax brevipinnis) is known only from four specimens collected in 1923 from an undefined locality in India. Sais’ mountain catfish (G. saisii) is known for certain only from the Chota Nagpur Plateau in northern India (Jharkand). The Cardamom mountain catfish (G. coracinus) is known only from the short coastal drainages on the western face of the Cardamom Mountains in south-western Cambodia. House’s mountain catfish (G. housei) and the Anamalai mountain catfish (G. anamalaiensis) are both confined to the Anamalai Hills of south-western India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala). The Madraspatana catfish (G. madraspatanus), Poona catfish (G. poonaensis) and Trewavas’ catfish (G. trewavasae) are all confined to montane streams within the Western Ghats of southwestern India.
The Arakan stream catfish (Akysis vespertinus) is known only from the western face of the Arakan Mountains in southcentral Myanmar. The Stung Chhay stream catfish (A. clinatus) is known only from a single hillstream in south-western Cambodia.
The Travancore naked catfish (Batasio travancoria) is confined to hillstreams within the Western Ghats of southwestern India, where it is threatened by overfishing and habitat destruction. The Sharavati naked catfish (B. sharavatiensis) is confined to the Joginmatha and Yennehole tributaries of the Sharavati River and to the Vimalanathi tributary of the Tunga River, in south-western India (Karnataka). It is threatened by intermittent water flow in the hillstreams where it lives due to dams. The elongated naked catfish (B. elongatus) is known only from hillstreams within the Arakan Mountains of southcentral Myanmar.
Three loaches of the genus Sewellia are threatened by overfishing and habitat destruction. The small-lined loach (S. lineolata) is confined to a few coastal drainages in south-central Vietnam. Roberts’ loach (S. pterolineata) is known only from the Ve and Tra Khuc rivers in south-central Vietnam. The kneecap loach (S. patella) is known only from the Ba (Da Rang) and Sesan basins of central Vietnam (Gia Lia and Kon Tum provinces).
The splendid loach (Yasuhikotakia splendida) is known only from a small area of south-west-central Thailand, where it is threatened by dam construction.
The black-lined loach (Ambastaia nigrolineata) is found widely but patchily in southern China (Yunnan), Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand, where it is threatened by dam construction and pollution.
The Santhampara loach (Ghatsa santhamparaiensis) is known only from two streams within the Western Ghats of south-western India (Kerala).
The Travancore loach (Travancoria jonesi) is known only from two montane streams in the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Kerala), where it is threatened by habitat degradation and introduced species.
The spearfin loach (Acanthocobitis pavonacea) is found in the Brahmaputra and Ganges river drainages, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
Rendahl’s weather loach (Misgurnus multimaculatus) is known only from a few specimens collected in the 1940s from central coastal Vietnam (Hué province).
The Western Ghats striped loach (Botia striata) is confined to mountain streams within the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Karnataka and Maharastra). The ladder loach (B. rostrata) is confined to highland streams within the lower Ganges and Brahmaputra drainages of north-eastern India (Mizoram, West Bengal, Nagaland and Tripura) and Bangladesh.
The slender stone loach (Balitora mysorensis) is confined to mountain streams within the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Kerala and Karnataka). The Khao Soi Dao stone loach (B. meridionalis) is known only from its original collection in 1978 from a small area of south-central Thailand (Chanthaburi province).
The Banar stone loach (Nemacheilus banar) is known only from a few rivers in south-central Vietnam.
The Shimoga stone loach (Nemachilichthys shimogensis) is confined to the Western Ghats of south-western India (Maharashtra and Karnataka), where it is threatened by dam construction.
The Kerala stone loach (Indoreonectes keralensis) is known only from a few localities within the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Kerala), where it is threatened by introduced species and pollution.
Day’s stone loach (Mesonoemacheilus pulchellus) is confined to a few rivers within the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Kerala). Herre’s stone loach (M. herrei) is confined to a very small area within the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in south-western India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu), where it is threatened by pesticide run-off from tea plantations. Petrubanarescu’s dwarf stone loach (M. petrubanarescui) is known only from the Nethravati and Kabani rivers within the Western Ghats of south-western India (Karnataka and Kerala). It is threatened by sand mining and pollution.
A number of stone loaches of the genus Schistura are threatened by habitat degradation, pollution, overcollection for the international aquarium trade and dam construction. McClelland’s stone loach (S. zonata) is known only from its original collection in 1839 from an undefined locality in northeastern India (Assam). Pellegrin’s stone loach (S. nasifilis) is known only from its original collection in 1936 from the Ko and Tan rivers of south-central coastal Vietnam. It has not been recorded since, and may be extinct. The Nam Xi stone loach (S. sertata) is known only from a single small stream in northern Laos. The Manipur stone loach (S. chindwinica) is known only from the Barak and Brahmaptura drainages of north-eastern India (Manipur). The Nam Mo stone loach (S. finis) is known only from small streams in the headwaters of the Mo River, on the border between northern Laos and northern Vietnam. The Pu Mat stone loach (S. pumatensis) is known only from creeks and small rivers within Pu Mat National Park in northern Vietnam (Nghe An province). Singh’s stone loach (S. singhi) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern India (Nagaland). Sokolov’s stone loach (S. sokolovi) is confined to a few rivers in south-central Vietnam. Yersin’s stone loach (S. yersini) is confined to a few mountain streams in south-central Vietnam. The parrot stone loach (S. psittacula) is confined to the Cam Lo and Ben Hai rivers in central Vietnam (Quang Tri province). The Huong stone loach (S. huongensis) is confined to the Huong and Cam Lo rivers in central Vietnam (Thua Thuen Hue and Quang Tri provinces).
The Shan stone loach (Physoschistura rivulicola) is known only from Lake Inlé and part of the Salween River drainage in central Myanmar (Shan State).
The Garo Hills stone loach (Aborichthys garoensis) is known from a few hillstreams in north-eastern India (Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh).
The striated stone loach (Longischistura striatus) is known only from a few localities within the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu).
The Nan Kwe eel-loach (Pangio lumbriciformis) is known only from Nan Kwe stream near Myitkina in northern Myanmar.
The Bombay swamp eel (Monopterus indicus) and the Malabar swamp eel (M. fossorius) are both known only from a few localities within the Western Ghats of central and southwestern coastal India.
The Hpa Lap spiny eel (Macrognathus obscurus) is known only from specimens collected from a single stream in northern Myanmar. The peacock spiny eel (M. pavo) is known only from a single stream within the Arakan Mountains of western Myanmar.
The Kyeintali Chaung spineless eel (Pillaia indica) is known only from a single stream within the Arakan Mountains of western Myanmar. The Kachin spineless eel (P. kachinica) is known only from two streams in northern Myanmar (Kachin State).
Lake Inlé
Lake Inlé and its tributaries lie in the Shan Hills of east-central Myanmar (Shan State). It is long, narrow and relatively shallow, but supports a remarkable number of endemic fishes. Unfortunately, the lake has been drastically modified by land-reclamation schemes and negatively affected by pollution and invasive species. The lake’s outlet disappears into the ground at some point, although it is thought that its waters ultimately reach a tributary of the Salween River.
The Inlé snakehead (Channa harcourtbutleri) is known only from the Lake Inlé basin.
The Inlé carp (Cyprinus intha) is confined to Lake Inlé, where it is threatened mainly by hybridization with introduced common carp (C. carpio).
The Inlé mud carp (Gymnostomus horai) is confined to Lake Inlé.
The Sawbwa barb (Sawbwa resplendens) is confined to Lake Inlé, where it is threatened by introduced fish species, overcollection for the international aquarium trade, and pollution.
The Inlé barb (Systomus compressiformis) has not been reported since 1994, and is likely extinct.
The red dwarf rasbora (Microrasbora rubescens) is confined to Lake Inlé.
Two species of danio (Devario) are endemic to the Lake Inlé basin. The Inlé danio (D. auropurpureus) is confined to the lake itself, while Jayaram’s danio (D. jayarami) is known only from a few tributary streams.
The emerald dwarf danio (Danio erythromicron) is confined to Lake Inlé.
The Inlé catfish (Silurus burmanensis) has not been reported since its discovery in the 1960s. It may survive in some tributary streams.
The Inlé stone loach (Yunnanilus brevis) is confined to Lake Inlé and its tributaries to the south.
The Inlé spiny eel (Mastacembelus oatesii) is confined to Lake Inlé and surrounding streams.
Lake Indawgyi
Lake Indawgyi is located in northern Myanmar (Kachin State). One of the largest lakes in South East Asia, it and the surrounding area have been set aside as the Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, which serves as a particularly important refuge for waterfowl.
The Indawgyi perch (Badis corycaeus) appears to be confined to Lake Indawgyi and a few nearby streams.
The Indawgyi glassfish (Pseudambassis roberti) is confined to Lake Indawgyi and a few nearby streams.
The Indawgyi longtail catfish (Olyra horae) is known only from a few museum specimens originating from Lake Indawgyi.
The Indawgyi spiny eel (Mastacembelus pantherinus) is known only from Lake Indawgyi and one of its tributaries.
The Kaveri River
The Kaveri River (also known as the Cauvery or Ponni River) is located in south-central India. Originating in the foothills of the Western Ghats, it flows south and east through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
The Bhavani brook carp (Neolissochilus bovanicus) is known only from the Kaveri River and its tributary, the Bhavani River, at the base of the Nilgiri Hills. It suffered a massive population decline for unknown reasons during the late twentieth century and it is thought that only a single population, in the Mettur reservoir, may still survive, although it has not been recorded there since 1998.
The Kaveri barb (Puntius cauveriensis) is confined to shallow pools within the Kaveri River drainage of the Western Ghats.
The Nilgiri barb (Hypselobarbus dubius) is confined to four streams within the Kaveri River drainage, in the southern part of the Western Ghats. The Korhi barb (H. micropogon) is similarly restricted to the headwaters of the Kaveri River.
Hora’s razorbelly minnow (Salmophasia horai) is confined to the headwaters of the Kaveri River in Karnataka.
The Nilgiri catfish (Hemibagrus punctatus) is known with certainty only from the Kaveri River and its principal tributaries. Not seen since 1998, it may already be extinct.
The Kaveri stone loach (Nemacheilus kodaguensis) is known only from a single stream within the Kaveri River drainage.
The Periyar River
The Periyar River is located in south-western India (Kerala). It originates high in the Western Ghats and flows west before emptying into the Arabian Sea.
The peninsular hilltrout (Lepidopygopsis typus) is known only from a few localities in the Periyar River drainage (including Lake Periyar), within the Periyar Tiger Reserve.
The Periyar barb (Hypselobarbus periyarensis) is confined to the Periyar River drainage, including Lake Periyar.
The Periyar garra (Garra periyarensis) is confined to the upper reaches of the Periyar River.
The long-finned sharkminnow (Osteochilus longidorsalis) is confined to the Periyar River and its tributary, the Chalakudy River.
The Periyar algae-eater (Crossocheilus periyarensis) is confined to the upper reaches of the Periyar River within the Periyar Tiger Reserve, where it is threatened by introduced fish species.
The imperial catfish (Horabagrus nigricollaris) is confined to the Periyar River and its tributary, the Chalakudy River.
The Periyar hillstream loach (Travancoria elongata) is confined to the Chalakudy and Pooyankutty tributaries of the Periyar River.
The Periyar reticulated loach (Mesonoemacheilus periyarensis) and the Periyar blotched loach (M. menoni) are both confined to the upper reaches of the Periyar River within the Periyar Tiger Reserve.
The Panniyar River
The Panniyar River is located within the Western Ghats of south-western India.
The Panniyar algae-eater (Horalabiosa arunachalami) is known only from a single locality within the Panniyar River, where it is seriously threatened by agro-based pollution originating from tea and cardamom plantations.
The Chalakudy River
The Chalakudy River is located within the Western Ghats of south-western India.
The Anaimalai loach (Homaloptera montana) is known only from streams passing through tea plantations within the Anaimalai Hills.
The Sharavati River
The Sharavati River is located in south-western India. It originates in the central Western Ghats and flows west through Karnataka state before emptying into the Arabian Sea.
The Nagodihole River
The Nagodihole River is an upper tributary of the Sharavati River located in the Western Ghats (Karnataka).
The Nagodihole stone loach (Schistura nagodiensis) is known only from a few rivulets within the Nagodihole River.
The Kalkatte River
The Kalkatte River is an upper tributary of the Sharavati River located in the Western Ghats (Karnataka).
The Kalkatte stone loach (Schistura sharavathiensis) is confined to a short (c.100 m) stretch of the Kalkatte River above Dabbe Falls.
The Krishna River
The Krishna River is located in south-western India (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh). It originates in the Western Ghats and flows east through southcentral India before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
The Deccan catfish (Gagata itchkeea) is known for certain only from the Krishna River drainage.
The Khavalchor catfish (Neotropius khavalchor) is known for certain only from the Krishna River drainage.
The Gongwaree catfish (Eutropiichthys goongwaree) is known for certain only from the Krishna River drainage.
The Seetha River
The Seetha River (also spelled Sita and Sitha) is located within the Western Ghats in south-western India (Karnataka).
The Seetha danio (Betadevario ramachandrani) is confined to the upper Seetha River drainage.
The Thuttinjet stone loach (Nemacheilus stigmofasciatus) is known only from the Seethanathi River, a small tributary of the Seetha River.
The Tunga River
The Tunga River is located within the Western Ghats of southwestern India (Karnataka).
The Tunga torrent minnow (Psilorhynchus tenura) is confined to two localities on the Tunga River.
The Kudremukh mountain catfish (Glyptothorax kudremukhensis) is confined to the headwaters of the Tunga River within Kudremukh National Park, where it is seriously threatened by sedimentation.
The Godavari River
The Godavari River runs west to east through most of central India. It is the country’s second longest river after the Ganges.
Day’s barb (Puntius ambassis) is known only from its original collection during the nineteenth century, most likely from the Godavari River.
Fraser’s danio (Devario fraseri) appears to be confined to the upper reaches of the Godavari River in the Western Ghats (Maharashtra).
The Darna River
The Darna River is a small upper tributary of the Godavari River located in the Western Ghats of west-central India (Maharashtra). General threats include pollution, habitat destruction and overfishing.
The dwarf mahseer (Tor kulkarnii) is known only from four specimens collected from the Darna River in the early 1990s.
The Darna barb (Puntius fraseri) is confined to the Darna River.
The Deolali minnow (Parapsilorhynchus prateri) is known only from the Darna River. The species has not been reported since 2004 despite repeated surveys, and may be extinct.
The Indravati River
The Indravati River is located in east-central India (Chhattisgarh).
The Indravati catfish (Clupisoma bastari) is known only from the Indravati River and the Ravishankar Sagar Reservoir.
The Namdapha River
The Namdapha River is located in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh). While nominally protected within Namdapha National Park, deforestation has been extensive, leading to sedimentation.
The Namdapha danio (Devario horai) is known only from its original collection in 1983 from hillstreams within Namdapha National Park. It may be extinct.
The Namdapha sheatfish (Pterocryptis indicus) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Namdapha River.
The Namdapha loach (Lepidocephalichthys arunachalensis) is known only from hillstreams within Namdapha National Park.
The Lower Ganges River
The lower Ganges (Ganga in Hindustani) flows south and east through northern India into central Bangladesh, where it ultimately empties into the Bay of Bengal.
Almora’s bangana (Bangana almorae) is known only from its original description in 1912 from north-western India (Uttar Pradesh).
The torrent-loving catfish (Sisor rheophilus) and the muscular catfish (S. torosus) are each known only from a few specimens collected from the lower Ganges River drainage.
The Ganges torrent catfish (Amblyceps tenuispinis) is known only from a single locality within the Ganges River drainage in northern India (Uttar Pradesh).
The Sone River
The Sone River is located in north-central India. It is the second largest of the Ganges’ southern tributaries after the Yamuna River.
The Rihand catfish (Erethistoides pipri) is known only from its original collection in 1950 from the Rihand River, a tributary of the Sone River in Uttar Pradesh. An enormous dam has since been constructed at the type locality.
The Bhagirathi River
The Bhagirathi River is located in north-eastern India (West Bengal).
The Bhagirathi catfish (Pseudolaguvia flavida) is known only from a single locality within the Bhagirathi River.
The Lower Brahmaputra River
The lower Brahmaputra River, as here defined, flows through north-eastern India (Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya and West Bengal) into central Bangladesh, where it merges with the Ganges River.
The black peacock softshell turtle (Nilssonia nigricans) was historically found throughout the lower Brahmaputra River drainage of north-eastern India (Assam) and Bangladesh. The species was long thought to be extinct in the wild, surviving only in small numbers within a single artificial temple pond near Chittagong, in south-eastern Bangladesh. Recently, however, it has been rediscovered in northeastern India.
The orange-spotted snakehead (Channa aurantimaculata) is known only from a single locality within the Brahmaputra drainage of north-eastern India (Assam). The Barca snakehead (C. barca) is known for certain only from the Brahmaputra drainage of north-eastern India (Assam and Nagaland) and Bangladesh. Both are threatened by overfishing and collection for the international aquarium trade.
The Kanabos perch (Badis kanabos) and the Assam perch (B. assamensis) are both known only from a few localities in the lower Brahmaputra River drainage of north-eastern India (Assam).
The spot-tailed catfish (Batasio spilurus) and the Meriani catfish (B. merianiensis) are both known only from the Brahmaputra River drainage of north-eastern India (Assam).
The Jaintia stone loach (Schistura reticulofasciata) is confined to streams within the Jaintia Hills of north-eastern India (Meghalaya).
The elongated stone loach (Physoschistura elongata) is known only from a single locality within the Brahmaputra drainage of north-eastern India (Meghalaya).
The Jorai River
The Jorai River is located in north-eastern India (Assam).
The Jorai barb (Oreichthys crenuchoides) is known only from the Jorai River.
The Priapus fish (Danionella priapus) is known only from the Jorai River.
The Mansai River
The Mansai River is located in north-eastern India (West Bengal).
The Schutunga catfish (Erethistoides sicula) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Schutunga River, a tributary of the Mansai River.
The Mahananda River
The Mahananda River is located in north-eastern India (West Bengal).
The Mahananda catfish (Conta conta) is known for certain only from the Mahananda River drainage.
The Surma–Meghna River Drainage
The Surma–Meghna river drainage is one of the longest in Asia, and one of the three river complexes that form the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta. It rises in the Manipur Hills of north-eastern India as the Barak River and flows west, becoming the Surma River, before finally flowing south as the Meghna River to the Bay of Bengal by way of Bangladesh.
The ornate catfish (Nangra ornata) is known only from the Surma–Meghna drainage in north-eastern Bangladesh (Sylhet province).
The Barak River
The Barak River (also known as the Ovurei River) is located in north-eastern India (Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Assam) and Bangladesh. Proposed dam construction poses a serious threat to a number of freshwater fish species.
The Barak perch (Badis tuivaiei) is known only from the Tuivai and Irang rivers, tributaries of the Barak River.
The Barak mahseer (Tor barakae) is confined to two streams within the Barak River drainage.
The Manipur garra (Garra manipurensis) is confined to the Barak River drainage.
The Barak sheatfish (Pterocryptis barakensis) is known only from a single locality within the Barak River.
The Barak mountain catfish (Glyptothorax manipurensis) is confined to the Barak River.
The Barak stone loach (Schistura tigrinum) is known only from a single locality within the Barak River drainage.
The Baleshwar River is located in north-eastern India (Assam).
The Baleshwar torrent minnow (Psilorhynchus amplicephalus) is confined to the Baleshwar River.
The Jiri River is located in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Jiri catfish (Sisor barakensis) is known only from the Jiri River.
The Iyei River is located in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Iyei catfish (Exostoma barakensis) is known only from the Iyei River.
The Lower Irrawaddy River
The lower Irrawaddy, as here defined, begins at the confluence of the upper Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers in central Myanmar. From there it runs directly south into the Irrawaddy Delta, a low-lying expanse of land, streams and river located in coastal southern Myanmar, where it fans out across the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal.
The Burmese keelback water snake (Xenochrophis bellula) is known only from two historical and once recent specimen collected from the lower Irrawaddy River.
Blanford’s mud snake (Gyiophis maculosa) and Voris’ mud snake (G. vorisi) are both known only from a few specimens collected from the Irrawaddy delta in southern Myanmar.
The ruby barb (Pethia padamya) is a popular aquarium fish that, in the wild state, is known only from the lower Irrawaddy drainage along with an artificial pond above the Anisakan Falls in central Myanmar.
The Chindwin River
The Chindwin is the largest tributary of the Irrawaddy River. It originates in northern Myanmar and north-eastern India (Nagaland and Manipur), and flows south before ultimately joining the lower Irrawaddy mainstream in central Myanmar.
The Chindwin freshwater stingray (Makararaja chindwinensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Chindwin River.
Dogar Singh’s baril (Barilius dogarsinghi) is known only from the Chindwin drainage in north-eastern India (Nagaland and Manipur).
The Chindwin danio (Devario naganensis) is known only from its original description during the early twentieth century from the Chindwin River drainage.
The Chindwin torrent catfish (Amblyceps tuberculatum) is confined to fast-flowing hillstreams of the Chindwin River drainage.
Prashad’s stone loach (Schistura prashadi), Hora’s stone loach (S. kangjupkhulensis) and the reticulated stone loach (S. reticulata) are all confined to the Chindwin River drainage of north-eastern India (Manipur), where they are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Uyu River (also known as the Yu or Laniye River) is located in north-eastern India (Manipur and Nagaland) and north-western Myanmar (Sagaing region).
The Uyu barb (Pethia yuensis) is known only from the Lockchao and Maklang rivers, tributaries of the Uyu River in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Khujairok barb (Chela khujairokensis) is known only from Khujairok stream, a tributary of the Uyu River on the India/Myanmar border.
The Chatrickong barbil (Barilius chatricensis) is known only from its original collection within the Chatrickong River, a tributary of the Uyu River in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The ornate rasbora (Rasbora ornata) is confined to the Chatrickong and Lokchao rivers, tributaries of the Uyu River in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Lokchao danio (Devario yuensis) is known from three localities within the Lokchao River, a tributary of the Uyu River in north-eastern India (Manipur) and northwestern Myanmar.
The Uyu catfish (Myersglanis jayarami) is known only from the Uyu River, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and overfishing.
The Uyu torrent catfish (Amblyceps torrentis) is confined to the Uyu River headwaters.
The Tizu stone loach (Schistura nagaensis) is confined to hillstreams within the Tizu River, a tributary of the Uyu River in north-eastern India (Manipur and Nagaland).
The Manipur River is located in north-eastern India (Manipur) and north-western Myanmar.
Two species of barb (Pethia) are endemic to the Manipur River drainage. The Imphal barb (P. ater) is known only from the Imphal River, a tributary of the Manipur River in north-eastern India (Manipur). The Khuga barb (P. khugae) is confined to the Khuga River, a tributary of the Manipur River in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Sherou barbil (Barilius ngawa) is confined to the Sherou River, a tributary of the Manipur River in northeastern India (Manipur).
The Khuga garra (Garra paralissorhynchus) is confined to the Khuga River, a tributary of the Manipur River in northeastern India (Manipur).
The Chapki torrent minnow (Psilorhynchus microphthalmus) is confined to the Chapki stream, a tributary of the Manipur River in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Khuga stone loach (Schistura khugae) is confined to the Khuga River, a tributary of the Manipur River in northeastern India (Manipur).
The Ukhrul River is located in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Wanze garra (Garra compressa) and the Litan garra (G. litanensis) are each known only from a single stream within the Ukhrul River drainage.
The Ukhrul danio (Aspidoparia ukhrulensis) is known only from two localities within the Ukhrul River.
The Ukhrul catfish (Pseudecheneis ukhrulensis) is confined to the Ukhrul River drainage.
The Saman River is located in north-central Myanmar.
The Ma Gawe torrent minnow (Psilorhynchus breviminor) is known only from the Ma Gawe River, a tributary of the Saman River.
The Hwe-nga-sang River is located in east-central Myanmar.
The Hwe-nga-sang stone loach (Schistura paucifasciata) is known only from its original description in 1929 from the Hwe-nga-sang River.
The Lower Salween River
The lower Salween runs the length of eastern Myanmar, with its drainage basin extending into parts of north-western Thailand.
Brown’s danio (Devario browni) is confined to the Salween River in central-eastern Myanmar, where it is threatened by overcollection for the ornamental fish trade.
The flat-headed torrent catfish (Amblyceps platycephalus) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Salween River drainage in north-western Thailand.
Rao’s stone loach (Physoschistura raoi) is known only from its original collection from the Salween River in central-eastern Myanmar (Shan State) in the 1920s.
The Yuam River
The Yuam River (Maenam Yuam in Thai) is located in northwestern Thailand (Mae Hong Son province).
The Yuam bat-catfish (Oreoglanis heteropogon) is confined to the upper tributaries of the Yuam River drainage.
The Yuam stone loach (Schistura alticrista) is known only from the Yuam River.
The Mae Sa Nga River
The Mae Sa Nga River (Maenam Mae Sa Nga in Thai) is located in north-western Thailand.
The Mae Sa Nga bat-catfish (Oreoglanis laciniosus) is known only from two streams in the Mae Sa Nga drainage.
The Ataran River
The Ataran River (known as the Kasat River in Thailand) is located in south-eastern Myanmar (Karen state) and northwestern Thailand.
The humphead glassy perchlet (Parambassis pulcinella) is confined to the Ataran River and its tributaries. It is threatened by overcollection for the international aquarium trade as well as by habitat degradation.
The robust torrent minnow (Psilorhynchus robustus) is known only from a single stream at the headwaters of the Ataran River.
The Ataran stream catfish (Akysis vespa) is known only from the Ataran River drainage.
The Moei River
The Moei River (Maenam Moei in Thai) is located on the south-western Thailand–south-eastern Myanmar border.
The Moei catfish (Hemibagrus imbrifer) is known only from the Moei River.
The Moei stone loach (Schistura moeiensis) is known only from four tributary streams within the Moei River drainage, but may be more widespread.
The Great Tenasserim River
The Great Tenasserim River (also known as the Tanintharyi River) is located in south-eastern Myanmar.
The Tenasserim mud carp (Cirrhinus rubirostris) is known only from the Great Tenasserim River, where it is potentially threatened by dam development.
The emperor loach (Botia udomritthiruji) is confined to hillstreams within the upper Great Tenasserim River drainage. It was at one time a popular aquarium fish, but in recent years has become harder to obtain due to political instability.
The Chao Phraya River Drainage
The Chao Phraya (Maenam Chao Phraya in Thai) is the major river drainage in north-western and central-western Thailand. It begins at the confluence of the Ping and Nan rivers and flows south for roughly 370 km to the Gulf of Thailand.
Coleman’s barb (Discherodontus colemani) is an uncommon species from the upper Chao Phraya drainage in northwestern Thailand.
The Chiang Mai goby (Rhinogobius chiengmaiensis) is confined to the upper Chao Phraya drainage,where it is threatened by dam construction and other water diversion projects.
Hardman’s catfish (Pseudobagarius hardmani) is known only from its original collection from the Chao Phraya River in west-central Thailand.
Buchanan’s mountain catfish (Glyptothorax buchanani) is known only from the upper Chao Phraya River drainage.
The Doi Inthanon bat-catfish (Oreoglanis siamensis) is known only from the upper Chao Phraya drainage within Doi Inthanon National Park in northern Thailand (Chiang Mai province).
Walton’s stone loach (Schistura waltoni) is confined to the Ping, Wang and Yom tributaries of the upper Chao Phraya drainage in north-western Thailand, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
The Ping River
The Ping River (Maenam Ping in Thai) is located in northwestern Thailand (Chiang Mai and Mae Hong Son provinces). It is one of the two main tributaries of the Chao Phraya River.
Nakasathian’s bat-catfish (Oreoglanis nakasathiani) is known only from the Ping River drainage within the Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary.
The Ping stone loach (Schistura spilota) is confined to the upper Ping River drainage.
The Taeng River (Nam Mae Taeng in Thai) is located in Chiang Mai province.
Sinkler’s bangana (Bangana sinkleri) is known only from the upper Taeng River.
The firebar danio (Devario maetaengensis) is confined to the Taeng River and tributary streams.
The mini dragon stone loach (Schistura pridii) is confined to streams within the Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary.
The Nai River (Mae Ping Nai in Thai) is located in Mae Hong Son province.
Sudara’s bat-catfish (Oreoglanis sudarai) is known only from the Nai River, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and overfishing.
The Nan River
The Nan River (Maenam Nan in Thai) is located in northwestern Thailand (Nan province), and is the other of the two major sources of the Chao Phraya River.
Three species of bat-catfish (Oreoglanis) are confined to the Nan River drainage. The slender-tailed bat-catfish (O. tenuicauda) is confined to a small area of north-western Thailand. The Silaphet Waterfall bat-catfish (O. vicinus) is known only from Silaphet Waterfall. The Doi Bhuka bat-catfish (O. colurus) is known only from Doi Bhuka National Park, where it is threatened by dam construction.
The Nan river loach (Hemimyzon nanensis) is confined to the Nan River drainage.
The Nan stone loach (Schistura menanensis) is confined to the Nan River drainage.
Smith’s stone loach (Sectoria atriceps) is confined to the Nan River drainage.
The Yom River is located in west-central Thailand.
The falcate chameleon catfish (Acrochordonichthys gyrinus) is confined to the Yom River.
The dwarf loach (Yasuhikotakia sidthimunki) is confined to the Yom River.
The Lower Chao Phraya River
The lower Chao Phraya River is located in centralwestern Thailand.
Chanard’s water snake (Enhydris chanardi) is known only from the Chao Phraya freshwater swamp forest in central Thailand, where it is threatened by expansion of the city of Bangkok.
The Bangkok goby (Rhinogobius vexillifer) is known only from streams and tributary rivers within the lower Chao Phraya drainage, in what is now the city of Bangkok.
The Mae Klong River
The Mae Klong River (Maenam Mae Klong in Thai, and also known as the Meklong River) is located in western central Thailand (Kanchanaburi, Ratchaburi, and Smut Songkhram provinces). It begins at the confluence of the Khwae Noi and Khwae Yai rivers and flows south to the Gulf of Thailand.
The Mae Klong barb (Poropuntius melanogrammus) is confined to the upperMae Klong River and adjacent areas, where it is threatened by dam construction and habitat degradation.
Somphongs’ rasbora (Trigonostigma somphongsi) is confined to the lower Mae Klong drainage (Ratchaburi province). Long close to extinction in the wild, it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation and harvesting for the international aquarium trade.
The Mae Klong sheatfish (Pterocryptis buccata) is a blind species known from a few caves as well as surface streams within the Mae Klong drainage of Kanchanaburi province.
The Khwae Noi River
The Khwae Noi River (Maenam Khwae Noi in Thai) is located in Kanchanaburi province.
The Khwae Noi naked catfish (Batasio tigrinus) and Khwae Noi torrent catfish (Amblyceps variegatum) are both known only from hillstreams within the Khwae Noi River drainage.
The Lower Mekong River
Known as the Amazon of South East Asia, the Mekong is one of the longest rivers in the world. Like the Yangtze, Ganges and Indus it starts among the glaciers of Tibet, where it is known as the Lancang River (see ‘Upper Mekong’). Fed by melting snow it begins its 4500-km journey through steep mountain gorges in China, gathering power from streams along the way and passing through the ‘Golden Triangle’ formed by the borders of Myanmar, Laos and Thailand, before heading into Cambodia and ultimately entering the South China Sea through a network of distributaries (the Mekong delta) in south-western Vietnam. The drainage is home to some 1300 fish species and a rich turtle fauna. The river is also one of the last strongholds of the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris). Wetlands in the basin, meanwhile, harbour rare species such as Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) and sarus crane (Antigone antigone). General threats include overfishing, pollution and large-scale hydroelectric projects.
The Mekong snail-eating turtle (Malayemys subtrijuga) historically occurred throughout the Mekong River drainage, but has been much reduced due to a variety of factors. Additional introduced populations in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java are small and, in some places, extirpated.
The Tay Minh water snake (Enhydris innominata) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Mekong River drainage of southern Vietnam.
The Mekong giant catfish (Pangasianodon gigas), one of the world’s largest freshwater fish, was abundant within the lower Mekong River drainage in the early 1900s, but began to disappear by the 1970s. Overfishing and loss of migratory routes owing to the construction of dams are to blame for the decline. While now protected, the species is very near extinction.
The Mekong freshwater stingray (Hemitrygon laosensis) was historically endemic to the Mekong River drainage where it is known from Cambodia and northern Thailand. An additional introduced population lives in the Chao Phraya River in Thailand. It is threatened by heavy fishing and bycatch pressure, damming and habitat degradation.
The Mekong shad (Tenualosa thibaudeaui) remains widespread in the Mekong River drainage but has suffered declines due to overfishing and dam construction.
The Mekong tiger perch (Datnioides undecimradiatus) is confined to the lower Mekong drainage in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, where it is threatened by overcollection both for food as well as the international aquarium trade.
The bristly fish (Laocypris hispida) is known only from the Nam Leuk and Nam San (a small tributary of the Negum Reservoir) in northern Laos, where it is threatened by overfishing and loss of habitat.
The Mekong giant salmon carp (Aaptosyax grypus) is confined to the Mekong River drainage of northern Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, where it is threatened by overfishing and habitat degradation.
Behr’s bangana (Bangana behri) remains widespread in the Mekong River drainage but has suffered declines due to overfishing and dam construction.
Lagler’s barb (Hypsibarbus lagleri) is widespread within the middle Mekong River drainage of eastern Thailand, western Laos and north-eastern Cambodia, but is everywhere threatened by dam construction.
The thin-tailed barb (Mystacoleucus lepturus) remains widespread in the Mekong River drainage but has suffered declines due to dam construction and pollution.
The Mekong sharpmouth barb (Scaphognathops bandanensis) is a migratory species still found throughout much of the Mekong River drainage, but is everywhere threatened by overfishing and dam construction.
The thick-lipped barb (Probarbus labeamajor) is found patchily throughout much the Mekong River drainage, where it is threatened by overfishing and habitat destruction.
Deignan’s bitterling (Acheilognathus deignani) is confined to a few small tributaries in north-western Laos and northwestern Vietnam, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and overfishing.
The elephant ear gourami (Osphronemus exodon) is confined to the Mekong River drainage, where it is threatened by dam construction and pollution.
The Mekong betta (Betta stiktos) is known only from a small area of the Srepok River in north-eastern Cambodia, but is expected to occur as well in the lower Kong River in southern Laos and north-eastern Cambodia.
The Mekong sharkminnow (Osteochilus brachynotopteroides) is known only from a small number of localities dispersed throughout the Mekong River drainage.
Kottelat’s garra (Garra cyrano) is known from the Leuk, Theun and Kong tributaries in Laos, where it is restricted to the upper parts of the respective drainages in areas with strong current.
The line-cheek goby (Glossogobius sparsipapillus) is known only from the tidal zone of the Mekong delta and from the lower parts of the Mekong River in southern Vietnam and southern Cambodia.
The long-finned loach (Yasuhikotakia longidorsalis) is confined to the Mekong drainage of central Laos and northeastern Thailand, where it is threatened by dam construction.
Baird’s stone loach (Schistura bairdi) is known only from the mainstream Mekong River of south-western Laos in the Khone Falls area, and from Kaoh Han Island in north-eastern Cambodia (Stung Treng province). Schultz’s stone loach (S. schultzi) is known from northern Thailand (Chiang Rai and Loei provinces) and is expected from adjacent areas of northern Laos (Bokeo province). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Mekong eel-loach (Pangio longimanus) is known only from specimens collected in 1997 from the confluence of the Leuk and Gnong rivers in north-central Laos.
The belted serpent loach (Serpenticobitis cingulata) is confined to the Mekong River drainage of northern Laos and Thailand, where it is threatened by dam construction and pollution.
The Khone Phapheng Falls are located within the mainstream Mekong River in southern Laos (Champasak province), near the border with Cambodia. It is the largest waterfall in South East Asia and the widest in the world.
The Khone Falls river loach (Hemimyzon khonensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from Khone Falls.
The Kok River
The Kok River (Mae Nam Kok in Thai) is located in northwestern Thailand (Chiang Mai province) and Myanmar (Shan State).
The Doi Tung bat-catfish (Oreoglanis suraswadii) is known only from two rocky forest streams near Doi Tung, northern Thailand.
The beautiful stone loach (Schistura bella) and the shortheaded stone loach (S. breviceps) are both known only from the Kok River drainage.
The Leuk River
The Leuk River (Nam Leuk in Laotian) is located in northern Laos and north-eastern Thailand. The construction of the Nam Leuk Dam in the late 1990s, which diverted much of the water flow to the nearby Xan River, may have seriously threatened a number of endemic species.
The Leuk danio (Devario acrostomus) is known only from forested streams within the Leuk River drainage.
The bumblebee catfish (Pseudomystus bomboides) is known only from three specimens collected in 1997 from the Leuk River.
The Tenura stone loach (Schistura tenura), Leuk stone loach (S. leukensis) and the bark stone loach (S. suber) are all known only from their original collection in the 1990s within the Leuk River catchment. Their known geographical range now occurs almost entirely downstream of the Nam Leuk Dam, where very little water now remains.
The Leuk spineless eel (Chaudhuria fusipinnis) is known only from its original collection in 1997 from the Leuk River drainage.
The Ngiap River
The Ngiap River (Nam Ngiap in Laotian) is located in northern Laos.
Delacour’s bat-catfish (Oreoglanis delacouri) is known only from the upper Ngiap River.
The Ngiap stone loach (Schistura crabro) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1999.
The Tha River
The Tha River (Nam Tha in Lao) is located in north-western Laos (Luang Namtha province).
Three species of loach (Schistura) are confined to hillstreams in the upper Tha River drainage, where they are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation. The globeheaded stone loach (S. globiceps) and the nine-rayed stone loach (S. novemradiata) are each known only from a single stream. The russet stone loach (S. russa) is known only from two localities.
The Khan River
The Khan River (Nam Khan in Laotian) is located in northcentral Laos (Xiangkhouang province).
The Khan bat-catfish (Oreoglanis frenata) is known only from a single locality within the Khan River drainage.
The irregular stone loach (S. irregularis) is known only from two localities within the Khan River drainage.
The Xhat River (Nam Xhat in Laotian) is located in northcentral Laos.
The Xhat stone loach (Schistura xhatensis) is known only from its original collection in the upper Xhat River.
The Banghiang River
The Banghiang River (Se Banghiang in Laotian/Se Bang Hieng in Vietnamese) is located in southern Laos (Savannakhet province) and central Vietnam. It originates from the western side of the Annamite Mountains, and joins the Mekong near Savannakhet city.
The Banghiang stone loach (Schistura latidens) is known only from a single locality in the Banghiang River.
The Ou River
The Ou River (Nam Ou in Laotian) is located in northern Laos (Phongsaly and Luang Prabang provinces) and north-western Vietnam (Dien Bien province).
The pole stone loach (Schistura pertica) is known only from its original collection in 1997 from a small stream in northern Laos.
The Nua River (Nam Nua in Laotian) is located on the Vietnam–Laos border.
The Aramis stone loach (Schistura aramis) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Nua River.
The Ngum River
The Ngum River (Nam Ngum in Laotian) is a major tributary of the Mekong River located in northern Laos (Xiangkhoang and Vientiane provinces).
The Houay Sala Yai stone loach (Schistura sigillata), sought stone loach (S. quaesita) and the freckled stone loach (S. ephelis) are all known only from the Ngum River.
The Ngum river loach (Hemimyzon confluens) is known only from a single locality within the Ngum River, where it is threatened by mining activities and dams.
The San River (Nam San in Laotian) is located in northern Laos (Vientiane province). General threats include pollution from mining activities, sedimentation from deforestation, and dam construction.
The San goby (Rhinogobius albimaculatus) is known only from the San River.
The Quasimodo stone loach (Schistura quasimodo) and the San stone loach (S. coruscans) are both confined to the San River.
The Theun River
The Theun River (Nam Theun in Laotian, and also known as the Kading River) is located in central Laos (Khammouane and Bolikhamsai provinces).
The Theun barb (Scaphognathops theunensis) is confined to the Theun and Gnouang catchments. It is seriously threatened by dam construction, which has flooded much of its habitat with reservoirs.
The dark mahseer (Tor ater) is known only from two streams within the upper Theun River drainage.
The Theun bitterling (Rhodeus laoensis) is known only from the Theun and Gnouang catchments. Formerly common, it suffered serious declines after the construction of numerous dams between 1999 and 2009, which now impact much of its range.
The lined goby (Rhinogobius lineatus) is known only from the Theun River and its tributary, the Gnouang River.
The Theun sheatfish (Pterocryptis inusitata) is confined to the Theun River drainage, where much of its original range was inundated by a reservoir while the remainder lies within a protected area.
Kottelat’s stone loach (Schistura tubulinaris), the atra stone loach (S. atra), and the naked-backed stone loach (S. nudidorsum) are all confined to the Theun River drainage, where they are threatened by dam construction.
The Phao River (Nam Phao in Laotian) is located in eastcentral Laos (Bolikamsai province).
The Phao bat-catfish (Oreoglanis lepturus) is known only from a very short stretch (about 2 km) of a branch of the upper Phao River, where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction and pollution.
The Kong River
The Kong River (Se Kong in Laotian; Song Se Kong in Vietnamese) originates in central Vietnam and flows 480 km through southern Laos and eastern Cambodia before finally joining the Mekong River.
Kottelat’s barb (Poropuntius solitus), the confusing barb (P. consternans), the Aluoi barb (P. aluoiensis), and the lobocheiloides barb (P. lobocheiloides) are all confined to the Kong River drainage, where they are threatened by dam construction and overfishing.
The Bolaven danio (Devario salmonatus) is confined to the Bolaven Plateau of south-eastern Laos, within the Kong River drainage. It is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
The Kong mountain catfish (Glyptothorax filicatus) is confined to the Kong River drainage in central Vietnam and south-eastern Laos.
The Kong stream catfish (Akysis bilustris) is known only from two localities within the Kong River drainage of southern Laos (Attapeu province).
Diard’s loach (Sewellia diardi) is known only from the Kong River drainage in southern Laos.
Tizard’s stone loach (Schistura tizardi), Rikik’s stone loach (S. rikiki), and the Boloven Plateau stone loach (S. bolavenensis) are all confined to the Kong River drainage, where they are threatened by dam construction.
The Kong serpent loach (Serpenticobitis octozona) is an uncommon species confined to the Kong River drainage. The Bang Fai River (Xe Bang Fai in Laotian) is located in central Laos (Khammouane and Savannakhet provinces). It is notable for the Khoun Xe Cave, the largest river cave in the world.
The Bang Fai sleeper goby (Terateleotris aspro) is confined to a small area of the Bang Fai River, downstream of the subterranean course and upstream of the Nam Theun 2 hydroelectric project.
The Bang Fai stone loach (Schistura punctifasciata) is confined to the Bang Fai River downstream of the subterranean section.
The Tonlé San River
The Tonlé San River (also known as the Tonlé Se San River or Sesan River) flows through south-central Vietnam, southeastern Laos, and north-eastern Cambodia.
The Tonlé San carp (Mekongina bibarba) is confined to the Tonlé San River.
The Kon Tum stone loach (Schistura kontumensis) is known for certain only from a few specimens collected from the headwaters of the Tonlé San River in south-central Vietnam (Kon Tum province).
The Pako River is located in south-central Vietnam (Kon Tum province).
The butterfly loach (Sewellia breviventralis) is known only from a single locality within the Pako River.
The Tonlé Sap River
The Tonlé Sap River is located in central Cambodia (Siem Reap, Battambang, and Pursat provinces).
Tsukawaki’s dragonet (Tonlesapia tsukawakii) is known only from a small area of the Tonlé Sap River. Tonlé Sap Lake is the largest freshwater lake in South East Asia.
The Tonlé Sap water snake (Enhydris longicauda) is confined to the Tonlé Sap Lake floodplain. It is threatened by overcollection and loss of habitat.
The Thu Bon River
The Thu Bon River (Song Thu Bon in Vietnamese) is located in central Vietnam (Quang Nam province).
The Thu Bon barb (Spinibarbus brevicephalus) is confined to the Thu Bon River.
The Thu Bon loach (Sewellia albisuera) is confined to the Thu Bon River, where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the pet trade.
The Phong Nha River
The Phong Nha River is located in central Vietnam (Quang Binh province). It is protected within Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park.
The Phong Nha-Ke Bang carp (Cyprinus exophthalmos) and Hien’s carp (C. hieni) are both confined to the Phong Nha River drainage.
Trang’s danio (Devario trangi) and the Quang Binh danio (D. quangbinhensis) are both confined to hillstreams within the Phong Nha River drainage.
The Yleng spined loach (Cobitis ylengensis), Ngô’s spined loach (C. squataeniatus), the longitaeniatus spined loach (C. longitaeniatus) and the Phong Nha spined loach (C. phongnhaensis) are all known only from limestone mountain streams within the Phong Nha–Ke Bang drainage.
The Lam River
The Lam River (Song Lam or Song Ca in Vietnamese/Nam Khan in Laotian) originates in the Loi Mountains of Laos and crosses northern Vietnam before emptying into the Gulf of Tonkin.
The Lam minnow (Opsariichthys bea) is known only from the Lam River in northern Vietnam (Nghe An province).
The Lam stream goby (Rhinogobius nganfoensis) is confined to creeks and small rivers within the catchment area of the Lam River in northern Vietnam (Nghe An province).
The Ha Tinh stone loach (Schistura antennata) is known from a few small headwater streams in northern Vietnam (Ha Tinh province).
The Ma River
The Ma River (Song Ma in Vietnamese/Nam Ma in Laotian) is located in north-western Vietnam (Thanh Hoa and Son La provinces) and north-eastern Laos (Houaphan and Louangphrbang provinces).
The Ma goby (Rhinogobius nammaensis) is known only from the Ma River drainage.
The thick-tailed loach (Vanmanenia crassicauda) is known only from the Ma River drainage.
The Chu River
The Chu River (Song Chu in Vietnamese, and known as the Nam Xam River in Laos) is located in north-western Vietnam (Thanh Hoa province) and north-eastern Laos (Houaphan and Louangphrabang provinces). It is the largest tributary of the Ma River.
The Chu barb (Acrossocheilus xamensis) is known only from two specimens collected from the Chu River in northeastern Laos (Louangphrabang province).
The Nam Xam goby (Rhinogobius vermiculatus) is known only from small forest streams in north-eastern Laos (Houaphan province).
The Chu sleeper goby (Sineleotris namxamensis) is known only from the Chu River drainage in Laos (Houaphan province).
Miscellaneous Lakes, Rivers and Marshes
Lake Loktak is a large freshwater lake located in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Loktak barb (Pethia manipurensis) is confined to Lake Loktak, where it is threatened by habitat degradation.
Lake Pookode is located in the Western Ghats of India (Kerala).
The Pookode barb (Pethia pookodensis) is known for certain only from Lake Pookode.
The Narmadha River is located in north-western India (Madhya Pradesh).
Günther’s baril (Barilius radiolatus) is confined to the Narmadha River.
The Nelligudda Reservoir is located in south-western India (Karnataka).
The large razorbelly minnow (Salmophasia belachi) is known only from its original collection from the Nelligudda Reservoir in the 1990s.
The Chaliyar River is located in south-western India (Kerala).
The Chaliyar mountain catfish (Glyptothorax davissinghi) is known only from the Karimpuzha and Paanapuzha tributaries of the Chaliyar River, within the New Amarambalam Reserve Forest.
The Kallada River is located in south-western India (Kerala).
The exclamation barb (Dawkinsia exclamatio) is confined to the Kallada River drainage.
The Pambar River is located in south-western India (Kerala).
The Pambar banded loach (Mesonoemacheilus pambarensis) is known only from the Pambar River, within the Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary.
The Bharathapuzha River is located in south-western India (Kerala).
The Kunthi catfish (Pseudolaguvia austrina) is confined to the Kunthi River, a tributary of the Bharathapuzha River in the southern Western Ghats.
The Valapattanam River is located in south-western India (Kerala).
The Urutty mountain catfish (Glyptothorax malabarensis) is known only from a single hillstream within the Valapattanam River drainage.
The Tambraparniei River is located in south-western India (Tamil Nadu).
The Tambraparniei barb (Dawkinsia tambraparniei) is confined to the upper and middle reaches of the Tambraparniei River in the Western Ghats.
The Kaladan River (also known as the Chimtuipui River) is located in north-eastern India (eastern Mizoram) and western Myanmar (Rakhine State). It remains one of the largest rivers in the world to be completely unfragmented by dams.
The Kaladan mountain catfish (Glyptothorax chimtuipuiensis) is known only from the Kaladan River.
The Nambul River is located in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Nambul garra (Garra nambulica) is known only from one or two streams within the Nambul River drainage, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Iyei River is located in north-eastern India (Manipur).
The Iyei stone loach (Schistura minutus) is known only from the Iyei River.
The Ichamati River is located in north-eastern India (West Bengal) and western Bangladesh.
Andrew’s leaf fish (Nandus andrewi) is known only from the Ichamati River.
The Feni River is located in north-eastern India (Tripura) and south-eastern Bangladesh.
The Feni catfish (Pseudolaguvia inornata) is known only from the Koilla Khal creek, a tributary of the Feni River.
The Ganges–Brahmaputra delta is located in southern Bangladesh. Formed by the large, sediment-laden flows of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Surma–Meghna rivers, it is the world’s largest river delta.
The Tangail catfish (Nangra bucculenta) is known only from a small floodplain area between two large tributaries of the Ganges in central Bangladesh.
The Sittaung River is located in south-central Myanmar. Flowing from the Shan Hills to the Andaman Sea, the Pegu Range separates its basin from that of the Irrawaddy.
The Sittaung stream catfish (Akysis portellus) is known only from hillstreams in the Sittaung River drainage.
The Bang Pakong River (Maenam Bang Pakong in Thai) is located in south-central Thailand.
The club-barbel sheatfish (Ceratoglanis pachynema) is known for certain only from the lower Bang Pakong River drainage. A specimen was recorded from a market in Savannakhet, Laos, but was not preserved.
The Kampot River is located in southern coastal Cambodia.
The Kampot sheatfish (Pterocryptis bokorensis) is known only from the Kampot River.
The Dong Nai River is located in southern Vietnam (Lam Dong province).
The Dong Nai stone loach (Schistura dalatensis) is known only from the Dong Nai River drainage.
The Da Rang River (Song Da Rang in Vietnamese) is located in south-central coastal Vietnam (Kon Tum, Tuy Hoa, and Phu Yen provinces).
The Da Rang bumblebee catfish (Pseudomystus sobrinus) is known only from the Da Rang River drainage.
The Huong River (Song Huong in Vietnamese) is located in central coastal Vietnam (Thua Thien-Hue province).
The Huong barb (Hypsibarbus annamensis) is known only from specimens collected from the Huong River in 1936.
The Mong Mo River is located in coastal central Vietnam.
The Mong Mo stone loach (Schistura susannae) is confined to the Mong Mo River.
The Vu Gia River (Song Vu Gia in Vietnamese) is located in central Vietnam (Thua Thien-Hue, Da Nang, and Quang Nam provinces).
The Vu Gia gudgeon (Parasqualidus maii) is known only from the Vu Gia River, where it is threatened by hydropower developments.
The Ben Hai River (Song Ben Hai in Vietnamese) is located in central coastal Vietnam (Quang Tri and Quang Binh provinces).
The Vietnamese cardinal minnow (Tanichthys micagemmae) is confined to the Ben Hai River.
The Kien Giang River (Song Kien Giang in Vietnamese) is located in central coastal Vietnam (Quang Binh province).
The Kien Giang carp (Cyprinus melanes) is confined to the Kien Giang River.
The Vinh Thanh River (Song Vinh Thanh in Vietnamese) is located in central Vietnam (Binh Dinh province).
The marbled loach (Sewellia marmorata) and the Vinh Thanh stone loach (Schistura thanho) are both known only from the Vinh Thanh River drainage.
The Thua Luu River (Song Thua Luu in Vietnamese) is located in central Vietnam.
The Bach Ma stone loach (Schistura bachmaensis) is known only from a single small stream within the Thua Luu River drainage.
Valenciennes’ stone loach (S. spiloptera) is known only from the Thua Luu River drainage, where it too now appears to be confined to a single stream. Both are seriously threatened by loss of habitat.
The Thuy Loan River (Song Thuy Loan in Vietnamese) is located on the eastern face of the Annamite Mountains in central Vietnam (Da Nang province).
The Thuy Loan catfish (Pseudecheneis maurus) is known only from the Thuy Loan River.
Coasts and Satellite Islands
The section includes the coastal areas of South and South East Asia with the exception of the Malay Peninsula, but including Sri Lanka, Hainan, and numerous smaller islands.
The black-eared flying fox (Pteropus melanotus) is, as a species, found across a number of smaller islands in the Bay of Bengal and the eastern Indian Ocean. The nominate form (P. m. melanotus) is found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and hunting.
The Porbandar house gecko (Hemidactylus porbandarensis) is confined to the port area of the city of Porbandar in western India (Gujarat).
The five-fingered cylindrical skink (Chalcides pentadactylus) is known only from a single specimen (since lost) collected in 1870 from the sandy banks of a tidal river in south-western India (Kerala).
The Madras spotted skink (Barkudia insularis) is known only from two mangrove localities in north-eastern India (Odisha).
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is a large island located off the south-eastern coast of India. A land bridge once existed between the two that was said to have been passable on foot up to the late fifteenth century, although today it consists only of a chain of limestone shoals slightly above sea level in places. The island itself consists mainly of flat to rolling coastal plains, although with high mountains rising in the south-central part. The latter is responsible for the two main climatic divisions of the island, a very humid one in the south-west and a very dry one in the north-east. The south-western monsoon sweeps the south-west with moisture and nourishes it with a high precipitation, but almost all the rainfall is released there because the oceanic winds are stopped by the high mountain barrier. More than 2500 years of cultivation have deprived Sri Lanka of almost all its virgin vegetation. However, much of it was still covered by more or less dense forests up to the 1850s. During the last 150 years these forests have been cut down to make way for plantations. This threatens many of Sri Lanka’s animals with extinction, although the establishment of national parks and reserves has saved some of them, at least temporarily. That said, what remains of the biodiversity of this island ranks among the largest and most important in the world.
The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) is one of the three currently recognized subspecies of Asian elephant. Historically it was found throughout the island from sea level to the highest montane forests. Until 1830 they were so plentiful that their destruction was actually encouraged by the colonial government, with rewards paid for any that were killed. Many bull elephants were also ruthlessly hunted for sport. A lone British officer was credited with shooting over 1500, and two others are reputed to have shot half that number each. Many other trophy hunters claimed 250–300 during this period. It is estimated that about 10,000 elephants in all were killed or captured between 1831 and 1900. Yet by the turn of the twentieth century the animals were still widely distributed and relatively abundant in both the wet and dry lowlands. With a rapidly growing human population and resulting development, however, these large herbivores became increasingly restricted to fragmented areas of the lowland dry zone in the north, east and south-east, where by 1970 no more than 2500 still survived. With better protection and management, however, numbers began to grow once more. Unfortunately, the network of national parks where many now live are too small and provide insufficient habitat during the dry period, and human–elephant conflict outside the confines of these protected areas has increased considerably, to the detriment of the latter. In addition, during the recent civil war many of the animals were maimed or killed by poaching and land mines. Today an effort is being made to ameliorate conflicts and to preserve as many viable populations as possible, in as wide a range of suitable habitats as is feasible, both inside and outside protected areas.
The Sri Lankan sloth bear (Melursus ursinus inornatus) historically occurred throughout the island, but is now confined to the remaining lowland dry forests of the north and east. There are no reliable population figures available, but the animals are considered to be threatened.
The Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) is still fairly widespread on the island, but everywhere threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation as well as by poaching.
The toque macaque (Macaca sinica) is found throughout most of Sri Lanka where it is divided into three subspecies that will be discussed below. All are threatened by habitat destruction, persecution and collection for use as pets.
The purple-faced langur (Semnopithecus vetulus) is found throughout much of Sri Lanka, where it is divided into four subspecies. Philbrick’s purple-faced langur (S. v. philbricki) is found in northern and eastern Sri Lanka, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The red slender loris (Loris tardigradus) is a type of nocturnal prosimian confined to the rainforests of Sri Lanka, where it is divided into two subspecies which will be discussed below. The grey slender loris (L. lydekkerianus), previously discussed, also has at least two subspecies endemic to Sri Lanka. The foothill grey slender loris (L. l. grandis) is known only from the East Matale Hills, but probably occurs throughout the lower foothills of central Sri Lanka (Central province). All are threatened by loss of habitat and other factors.
Layard’s palm squirrel (Funambulus layardi) and the dusky palm squirrel (F. obscurus) are both found patchily in central and south-western Sri Lanka, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Ohiya rat (Srilankamys ohiensis) is found patchily in central and south-western Sri Lanka.
Fernandon’s spiny mouse (Mus fernandoni) is known only from a few localities scattered throughout Sri Lanka. Mayor’s mouse (M. mayori) is known only from a few localities in central and south-western Sri Lanka. Both are threatened by loss of habitat, pesticides and introduced domestic predators.
The Sri Lankan long-tailed shrew (Crocidura miya) is known only from a few localities in central and south-western Sri Lanka (Central and Subaragamuwa provinces).
The jungle pygmy white-toothed shrew (Suncus zeylanicus) is known only from a few localities in central and southwestern Sri Lanka (Central, Subaragamuwa and Southern provinces).
The red-faced malkoha (Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus) is a large cuckoo known to have been widespread on the island in the late nineteenth century. With the loss of much of its preferred moist forest habitat it is now largely confined to the Sinharaja Forest Reserve and surrounding areas in southwestern Sri Lanka, where it numbers no more than a few thousand and perhaps as low as several hundred.
The Sri Lankan wood pigeon (Columba torringtoniae) is found patchily in central and south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Subaragamuwa, Uva, and Southern provinces).
The Sri Lankan blue magpie (Urocissa ornata) is confined to central and south-western Sri Lanka, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The white-faced starling (Sturnornis albofrontatus) is confined to central and south-western Sri Lanka.
Kelaart’s toad (Adenomus kelaartii) is found patchily in central and south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Subaragamuwa, Uva, and Southern provinces).
Kotagama’s dwarf toad (Duttaphrynus kotagamai) is known only from three scattered localities in south-western Sri Lanka (Kitulgala, Messana, and Sinharaja forests).
The Rumassala shrub frog (Pseudophilautus zimmeri) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1927 from south-western coastal Sri Lanka (Southern province). All habitats in the region have since been destroyed by urbanization, and the species is almost certainly extinct. The Sinharaja Forest shrub frog (P. silvaticus) is confined to a small area of south-western Sri Lanka (Subaragamuwa province), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The long-snouted foam-nesting frog (Taruga longinasus) is known only from a few scattered localities in central and south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Subaragamuwa, and Southern provinces).
Karunaratne’s rice frog (Microhyla karunaratnei) is known only from two localities in southern Sri Lanka (Subaragamuwa province).
The Pattipola caecilian (Ichthyophis orthoplicatus) is confined to a small area of south-central Sri Lanka (Uva province).
The pseudo-angular caecilian (Ichthyophis pseudangularis) is found patchily in central and south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Subaragamuwa, and Southern provinces).
The Central Highlands
The Central Highlands are located in the south-central interior of Sri Lanka. During the first half of the nineteenth century most of the montane rainforests were cleared for the largescale planting of coffee and tea, resulting in the extinction of a great many species. What remains is still a biological hotspot of global importance, and is protected within three main protected areas (the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, Horton Plains National Park, and Knuckles Conservation Forest).
The Central Highlands toque macaque (Macaca sinica opisthomelas) is confined to the Central Highlands.
The Central Highlands purple-faced langur (S. v. monticola) is confined to the Central Highlands.
The Horton Plains red slender loris (Loris tardigradus nycticeboides) is confined to a small area of the Central Highlands.
The Central Highlands rat (Rattus montanus) is confined to four localities within the Central Highlands (Central and Subaragamuwa provinces).
The Central Highlands tree mouse (Vandeleuria nolthenii) is confined to a few fragmented localities in the Central Highlands (Central and Uva provinces).
Fellowes-Gordon’s pygmy white-toothed shrew (Suncus fellowesgordoni) is known only from a few localities within the Central Highlands (Central province).
Pearson’s long-clawed shrew (Solisorex pearsoni) is known only from a few localities within the Central Highlands (Central province).
The Sri Lankan whistling thrush (Myophonus blighi) is a rare species confined to the Central Highlands (Central, Uva and Subaragamuwa provinces).
The spineless forest lizard (Calotes liocephalus) is known only from an undefined area of central Sri Lanka.
The Deignan tree skink (Lankascincus deignani) is confined to montane rainforest within the Central Highlands, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Cope’s rough-sided snake (Aspidura copei) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Central Highlands.
The Kandy dwarf toad (Adenomus kandianus) was long known only from its original collection in 1872 from an undefined locality in Sri Lanka. It was rediscovered in 2009 within the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary of the Central Highlands, and a second population was located in 2014 from the Pidurutalagala Forest Reserve.
The Rawkana foam-nesting frog (Taruga fastigo) is known only from a single montane forest fragment in south-western Sri Lanka (Subaragamuwa province). Günther’s foam-nesting frog (T. eques) is confined to a few localities in central and south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Uva and Subaragamuwa provinces).
The shrub frogs (Pseudophilautus) are a large genus from the Western Ghats of south-western India and Sri Lanka. Sadly, a great many species from the latter became extinct before anything could be learned about them, although it is logical to suppose that many lived in the Central Highlands. These include Günther’s shrub frog (P. adspersus), the Dimbulla shrub frog (P. dimbullae), Shreve’s shrub frog (P. eximius), the blunt-snouted shrub frog (P. extirpo), the Pattipola shrub frog (P. halyi), Malcolm Smith’s shrub frog (P. malcolmsmithi), the white-nosed shrub frog (P. leucorhinus), the sharp-snout shrub frog (P. nasutus), the pygmy shrub frog (P. nanus), the white-blotched shrub frog (P. zal), the temporal shrub frog (P. temporalis), the variable shrub frog (P. variabilis), the leopard shrub frog (P. pardus), the Farnland shrub frog (P. rugatus), the Maia shrub frog (P. maia), and the sharp-snouted shrub frog (P. oxyrhynchus). The starry shrub frog (P. stellatus) was thought to be extinct for 156 years, until unexpectedly rediscovered in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary in 2009. Other still-extant threatened species include the golden-eyed shrub frog (P. ocularis), the bigfoot shrub frog (P. macropus), the elegant shrub frog (P. decoris), the Morningside shrub frog (P. simba), the cheeky shrub frog (P. procax), the papillated shrub frog (P. papillosus), Asanka’s shrub frog (P. asankai), the golden shrub frog (P. auratus), the blue-thighed shrub frog (P. caeruleus), the hollow-snouted shrub frog (P. cavirostris), the round-snout shrub frog (P. femoralis), Frankenberg’s shrub frog (P. frankenbergi), the small-eared shrub frog (P. microtympanum), Halliday’s shrub frog (P. hallidayi), the Handapan Ella shrub frog (P. lunatus), Annandale’s shrub frog (P. semiruber), Steiner’s shrub frog (P. steineri), the pug-nosed shrub frog (P. silus), Schmarda’s shrub frog (P. schmarda), Sarasinors’ shrub frog (P. sarasinorum), Poppy’s shrub frog (P. poppiae), the webless shrub frog (P. hypomelas), and the Horton Plains shrub frog (P. alto).
The dull-green bush frog (Raorchestes viridis) is known only from a small area of south-central Sri Lanka (Central province).
Green’s frog (Zakerana greenii) is confined to a small area of south-central Sri Lanka (Central and Uva provinces).
The Central Highlands balloon frog (Uperodon palmatus) is confined to a small area of south-central Sri Lanka (Central and Uva provinces).
The Sri Lanka rice frog (Microhyla zeylanica) is confined to a small area of south-central Sri Lanka (Central and Uva provinces).
The Knuckles Range –– The Knuckles Range (Dumbara Kanduvetiya in Sinhalese) is located in central Sri Lanka (Central province). It takes its name from a series of recumbent folds and peaks in the west of the massif, which resemble the knuckles of a clenched fist.
Tennent’s leaf-nosed lizard (Ceratophora tennentii) appears to be confined to the Knuckles Range.
The Knuckles pygmy lizard (Cophotis dumbara) is known only from the Knuckles Range, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.
Stuart’s shrub frog (Pseudophilautus stuarti) is known only from the Corbett’s Gap region in the southern Knuckles Range, and from nearby Bambarella Peak. Moores’ shrub frog (P. mooreorum) has been recorded from Corbett’s Gap, Hunnasgiriya and Bambarella Peak. Hoffmann’s shrub frog (P. hoffmanni) is known from the Corbett’s Gap region and Bambarella Peak, but may occur in other cloud forests of the Knuckles Range. The tawny shrub frog (P. fulvus) is confined to the northern Knuckles Range. All are threatened by logging and pesticides.
The marbled streamlined frog (Nannophrys marmorata) is a largely aquatic species confined to hillstreams within the Knuckles Range.
Lowland Rainforests
Areas of lowland rainforest (i.e. below 1000 m elevation) are to be found in central and south-western Sri Lanka. During the colonial period from 1505 to 1948 this ‘wet zone’ was largely converted to agriculture, and became heavily settled. Today little remains outside of protected areas.
The lowland wet zone toque macaque (Macaca sinica aurifrons) is confined to south-western Sri Lanka.
The southern purple-faced langur (Semnopithecus vetulus vetulus) and the regal purple-faced langur (S. v. nestor) are both confined to the lowland wet zone.
The wet zone red slender loris (Loris tardigradus tardigradus) is confined to south-western Sri Lanka.
The Serendib scops owl (Otus thilohoffmanni) is known only from a few localities in south-western Sri Lanka (Western, Southern, and Subaragamuwa provinces).
The ashy-headed laughingthrush (Garrulax cinereifrons) is found patchily in south-western Sri Lanka.
The green-billed coucal (Centropus chlororhynchos) is a type of cuckoo found patchily in south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Western, Southern, and Subaragamuwa provinces).
The rough-nose horned lizard (Ceratophora aspera) is found patchily in south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Western, Subaragamuwa and Southern provinces).
Ranawane’s cat snake (Boiga ranawanei) is known only from two localities in central Sri Lanka (Central province).
Noellert’s toad (Duttaphrynus noellerti) is known only from a few scattered localities in central and south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Subaragamuwa and Southern provinces).
Several species of shrub frog (Pseudophilautus) are threatened by loss of habitat and agrochemical pollution. The whistling shrub frog (P. nemus) is confined to the Haycock Hill (Hiniduma) Forest Reserve in south-western Sri Lanka (Southern province). The Gannoruwa shrub frog (P. zorro) is known only from a small area of central Sri Lanka (Central province). The side-striped shrub frog (P. pleurotaenia) was long known only from now-lost type specimens, but has since been found in two disjunct localities in central and southwestern Sri Lanka (Central province). The slender shrub frog (P. tanu) is known only from the Beraliya and Kanneliya forest reserves in south-western Sri Lanka (Southern province). Mittermeier’s shrub frog (P. mittermeieri) is known only from two disjunct localities in south-western Sri Lanka (Southern province). The reticulated shrub frog (P. reticulatus) is known from a few scattered localities in central and south-western Sri Lanka (Central, Western, Subaragamuwa, and Southern provinces). The short-horned shrub frog (P. singu) and the leafdwelling shrub frog (P. folicola) are both known only from a few widely scattered localities in south-western Sri Lanka (Subaragamuwa and Southern provinces). The sharp-snouted shrub frog (P. cuspis) is known only from a small area of south-western Sri Lanka (Subaragamuwa and Southern provinces).
Nagao’s balloon frog (Uperodon nagaoi) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Kanneliya Forest Reserve and Hiyare Forest Reserve in south-western Sri Lanka (South province).
The Sinharaja Forest –– The Sinharaja Forest is located in a hilly region of south-western Sri Lanka (Southern province). The country’s last viable area of primary rainforest, it was saved from commercial logging by its inaccessibility and is now nominally protected within the Sinharaja Forest Reserve. In 1988 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Sinharaja shrew (Crocidura hikmiya) is known only from two localities within the Sinharaja Forest Reserve.
Lowland Dry Forests
Lowland dry forests are to be found across most of Sri Lanka with the exception of the south-western ‘wet zone’, the Central Highlands, and the thorn scrubs of the northern Jaffna Peninsula.
The dry zone toque macaque (Macaca sinica sinica) is confined to northern and eastern Sri Lanka.
The southern sacred langur (Semnopithecus thersites) is confined to Sri Lanka’s dry-zone.
The dry-zone grey slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus nordicus) is found throughout north-central and eastern Sri Lanka, possibly extending into the south-east.
Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes
Sri Lanka has over 100 rivers draining from the Central Highlands, giving rise to a number of spectacular waterfalls.
The largely aquatic streamlined frogs (Nannophrys) are endemic to Sri Lanka, where they are threatened by loss of habitat and pollution. Günther’s streamlined frog (N. guentheri) is known only from its original collection from an undefined locality in Sri Lanka. It is now considered to be extinct. Naeyaka’s streamlined frog (N. naeyakai) is known only from a few areas of east-central Sri Lanka. The Ceylon streamlined frog (N. ceylonensis) is confined to south-western Sri Lanka.
The Asoka barb (Systomus asoka) is largely confined to the upper reaches of the Sitawaka River and its tributaries in south-western Sri Lanka, with an additional population within the Kelani River drainage. It is seriously threatened by habitat destruction.
The Wilpita rasbora (Rasbora wilpita) is confined to a handful of shallow streams within lowland rainforest areas of south-western Sri Lanka.
The redfin labeo (Labeo lankae) is confined to the Malvathu, Kala Oya, and Perararu river drainages of central and north-western Sri Lanka.
The lipstick goby (Sicyopus jonklaasi) is confined to a few fast-flowing streams within lowland rainforest areas of southwestern Sri Lanka, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and agrochemical pollution.
Jonklaas’ loach (Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi) is confined to a handful of shallow streams within lowland rainforest areas of south-western Sri Lanka.
The Mahaweli River –– The Mahaweli River rise in Horton Plains National Park in central Sri Lanka and flows northeast. At 335 km in length it is the longest river in the country.
Martenstyn’s barb (Systomus martenstyni) is confined to a few localities in the mid-Mahaweli River drainage.
Fischer’s labeo (Labeo fisheri) is known only from a few streams in the Mahaveli River drainage, where it may already be extinct.
The Kelani River –– The Kelani River is located in southwestern Sri Lanka.
The Bandula barb (Pethia bandula) was long confined to a single small tributary of the Kelani River, although in recent years two other populations have been established.
The Nilwala River –– The Nilwala River is located in southwestern Sri Lanka (Southern province). It rises in the Sinharaja Forest Reserve and flows south.
The barred danio (Devario pathirana) is confined to the Nilwala River drainage, where it is threatened by pollution and overcollection for the international aquarium trade.
The Maldives
The Maldives consist of almost 1200 coral islands grouped in a double chain of 26 low-lying atolls located south-west of India. None are more than 2.4 m above sea level, and are thus at high risk of being submerged by rising seas due to climate change.
Addu Atoll
Addu Atoll (also known as Seenu Atoll), located just south of the equator, is the southernmost of the Maldives.
The Maldives flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus maris) is known only from Addu Atoll.
The Andaman Islands
The Andamans are an archipelago of 235 islands located in the Bay of Bengal between India and Myanmar.
The Andaman rat (Rattus stoicus) is known only from Henry Lawrence Island, South Andaman, and Middle Andaman.
Tytler’s black-eared flying fox (Pteropus melanotus tytleri) is confined to South Andaman and Rutland Island.
The Andaman horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus cognatus) is fairly widespread within the Andaman Islands, being known from North Andaman, Interview Island, Baratang, Little Andaman, and a number of smaller islands. It is threatened mainly by human disturbance of its roosting caves.
The Andaman teal (Anas albogularis) is a type of duck confined to the Andaman Islands and Great Coco Island.
The Andaman krait (Bungarus andamanensis) is a type of venomous snake known for certain only from South Andaman Island, but is likely to occur on Middle and North Andaman as well.
Charles Darwin’s oriental frog (Ingerana charlesdarwini) is known only from a few localities on South Andaman, North Andaman, and Long Island.
The Andaman pipefish (Microphis insularis) is confined to rivers and streams within the Andaman Islands, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
North Andaman and Middle Andaman
North Andaman and Middle Andaman are separated only by a narrow strait.
The Middle Andaman shrew (Crocidura hispida) is known only from a single specimen collected on Middle Andaman.
The Middle Andaman rice frog (Microhyla chakrapani) is known only from its original collection on Middle Andaman Island in the 1970s.
South Andaman
South Andaman is the southernmost and most populous of the Andaman Islands.
The South Andaman shrew (Crocidura andamanensis) was long known only from a single specimen collected on South Andaman is 1902. A second has since been found on Mount Harriet.
Narcondam
Narcondam is a small, volcanic island located north-east of the main chain of the Andamans. It is still largely forested.
The Narcondam hornbill (Rhyticeros narcondami) is confined to Narcondam, where it has a small but stable population of around 300.
The Coco Islands
The Coco Islands are a small group of islands located north of the Andaman Islands.
Oates’ blind snake (Argyrophis oatesii) is known only from tiny, uninhabited Table Island in the Coco Islands.
The Nicobar Islands
The Nicobar Islands are an isolated archipelago located in the eastern Indian Ocean off the northern tip of Sumatra. Unlike the Andaman Islands to the north they were never connected by a land bridge to the mainland, and are still largely covered by rainforests.
Nicobar long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosus) is confined to Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, and Katchall Island, where it is threatened mainly by hunting and trapping.
The Nicobar treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica) is confined to Great Nicobar and Little Nicobar.
The Nicobar rat (Rattus burrus) is confined to Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, and Trinkat Island. The palm rat (R. palmarum) is confined to Car Nicobar and Great Nicobar.
The Nicobar flying fox (Pteropus faunulus) is currently known from six of the Nicobar Islands (Nancowry, Teressa, Camorta, Bompoka, Katchall, and Trinkat). It historically occurred on Car Nicobar as well, but appears to have been extirpated from there.
The Nicobar sparrowhawk (Accipiter butleri) is known only from Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Pilo Milo, Kamorta, Teressa, Bompoka, Tillanchong, Katchall, and Nancowry islands.
The Nicobar scops owl (Otus alius) was originally known only from two specimens collected on Great Nicobar in 1998, and another trapped and photographed in 2003 on Nancowry Island. In recent years it has been seen more frequently and may occur on other islands in the southern Nicobar group, in particular Little Nicobar.
The Nicobar scrubfowl (Megapodius nicobariensis) is a chicken-like bird divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (M. n. nicobariensis) is found on Camorta, Trinkat, Nancowry, Katchall, Teressa, Bompoka, and Tillanchong islands. Abbott’s Nicobar scrubfowl (M. n. abbotti) is confined to Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Kondul, Menchal, Treis, and Meroe. Both were considerably affected by the 2004 tsunami but have recovered, although loss of habitat continues to be a threat.
The Nicobar cat snake (Boiga wallachi) is confined to Great Nicobar and Little Nicobar.
The Nicobar frog (Minervarya nicobariensis) is confined to the central and northern Nicobar Islands (Car Nicobar, Teressa, Camorta, Trinkat, and Nancowry).
Great Nicobar
Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands. The vast majority of it has been set aside as the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve.
The Great Nicobar shrew (Crocidura nicobarica) is known only from the southern tip of Great Nicobar.
The Great Nicobar tree frog (Polypedates insularis) is confined to Great Nicobar. Hainan
The island of Hainan is located in the South China Sea and is separated from the Chinese mainland to the north by a shallow, narrow strait. A relatively stable climate over a long period of time has led to the development of a very diverse flora and fauna, but habitat destruction and excessive hunting combined with a high population density have taken their toll. Almost no large animals or lowland forests remain, and the island’s lakes and rivers are threatened by introduced carp and catfish.
The Hainan crested gibbon (Nomascus hainanus) is one of the world’s most endangered primates. Prior to the 1960s it was widely distributed on the island, but has since been confined to the Bawangling Nature Reserve in western Hainan. In 1993 there were only three groups remaining in remnant forest with less than 20 individuals in total. By 2003 only 13 were left. Since then, the population has increased somewhat but is still thought to be no more than 20. Sadly, some hunting pressure remains.
The Hainan sambar deer (Rusa unicolor hainana) is confined to Hainan.
The Hainan hare (Lepus hainanus) currently survives only in two artificially deforested lands in western Hainan used for deer ranching, where it is still heavily poached for its meat and skin. It also faces competition from introduced feral rabbits.
The Hainan lesser marmoset rat (Hapalomys delacouri marmosa) is confined to Hainan.
The Hainan peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron katsumatae) is found patchily in central and southern Hainan, where it has undergone significant declines due to habitat destruction and hunting.
The Hainan partridge (Arborophila ardens) is found patchily in central and southern Hainan, where it has undergone significant declines due to habitat destruction and hunting.
The Hainan magpie (Urocissa whiteheadi) is confined to the remaining forests of Hainan, where it is threatened by hunting.
The Hainan leaf warbler (Phylloscopus hainanus) is a littleknown species known only from a few localities in central and southern Hainan.
The Hainan odd-scaled snake (Achalinus hainanensis) is known only from two specimens collected on Mount Jianfengling in south-western Hainan.
The Hainan toad (Parapelophryne scalpta) is confined to central and southern Hainan.
The Hainan gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus yinggelingensis) is confined to the montane forests of the Yinggeling National Nature Reserve in central Hainan, where the total population is estimated to be around 3000.
The red-headed gliding frog (Buergeria oxycephala) is confined to central and southern Hainan.
The ocellated shrub frog (Liuixalus ocellatus) is known only from a few localities in central and southern Hainan.
The Hainan large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium hainanense) is known only from a few localities in central and southern Hainan.
The fine-spined frog (Sylvirana spinulosa) is known only from a few localities in central and southern Hainan.
The Hainan wart frog (Limnonectes fragilis) is known only from a few localities in central and southern Hainan.
The Diaoluo shrub frog (Liuixalus hainanus) is known from a few localities in central and western Hainan.
Boulenger’s cascade frog (Amolops hainanensis) and the little cascade frog (A. torrentis) are both confined to central and south-western Hainan, where they are threatened by loss of habitat and overharvesting for food.
The Hainan knobby newt (Tylototriton hainanensis) is known only from three localities in central and south-western Hainan, all of which fortunately lie within protected areas. Islands of Rach Gia Bay
Rach Gia Bay is located off southern Vietnam. Its 92 small, rocky islands are protected as part of the Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve.
Hon Son
Hon Son is composed of large granite boulders and has virtually no remaining vegetation.
The Hon Son pit viper (Cryptelytrops honsonensis) is confined to the island.
Hon Khoai
Hon Khoai is one of the largest islands in Rach Gia Bay.
The psychedelic day gecko (Cnemaspis psychedelica) is confined to Hon Khoai and Hon Tuong, the latter a small islet off Hon Khoai.
Miscellaneous Islands
Con Son is the largest island of the Con Dao Archipelago, off the coast of southern Vietnam. It has been designated a National Park.
The Con Son long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis condorensis) is confined to Con Son Island.
Phu Quoc is located off southern Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand.
The Phu Quoc shrew (Crocidura phuquocensis) is confined to the island’s undisturbed lowland rainforests.
Phangan Island (Ko Phangan in Thai) is located in the Gulf of Thailand.
The Phangan spectacled langur (Trachypithecus obscurus seimundi) is confined to Phangan Island.
Khram Island (Ko Khrom in Thai) is an uninhabited island located in Bangkok Bay, Thailand.
The dark-crowned longtailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis atriceps) is confined to Ko Khram Island.
Anthropogenic effects on the flora and fauna
The Oriental Region was already inhabited by Homo erectus approximately 1.5 million years ago. Modern humans (H. sapiens) first arrived on the coastal areas of the Indian subcontinent from Africa by 55,000 years ago, and throughout mainland South East Asia by around 60,000 years ago. Evidence for the domestication of food crops and animals and the construction of permanent settlements there date from around 6500 bc. The latter gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization, the first urban culture in South Asia, which flourished during 2500–1900 bc in what is now Pakistan and western India. Others would follow, gradually expanding east and south. South Asia’s subsequent history would be an inevitable progression of ever-rising human population and environmental destruction. Much of the latter has been driven there by the presence of entirely unproductive domestic cattle, which Hindu religious precepts prohibit the killing of. European exploration of the Oriental Region was dominated by the Portuguese. In the early 1490s Pêro da Covilhã visited the Malabar Coast of India, and would make another journey there in 1497–98. In 1506 Lourenço de Almeida reached theMaldives and Sri Lanka, and in 1511 Duarte Fernandes led a diplomaticmission to Siam (present-day Thailand). That same year Rui Nunes da Cunha undertook a similar mission to what is nowMyanmar, and in 1516 Portuguese traders landed in what is now Vietnam, naming it Cochinchina. The British, French and Portuguese would subsequently proceed to set up trading posts along the South and South East Asian coast, before ultimately colonizing the mainland areas well into the twentieth century. Hunting has since taken a particularly heavy toll onwild animals in India, particularly during the last two and a half centuries when the whole country was used as a happy hunting ground by both Asians and Europeans. There has also been amassive conversion of habitat for use as agriculture, although between the between the two World Wars the situation for India’s wildlife at least became a little improved by the establishment of national parks and reserves. It was not until the end of the colonial period, during the second half of the twentieth century, that environmental conditions in this region truly began to deteriorate. Indeed, after the end of World War II a massacre of wild animals and a destruction of their habitats, particularly in lowland areas, began on an unprecedented scale. Forest clearance and a largely uncontrolled trade in wild animals for their meat or use in ‘traditional medicine’ is still going on. Diseases contracted from domestic cattle are a particular threat to Asia’s wild ungulates, and several species of vulture have suffered catastrophic declines due to feeding on animal carcasses treated with the veterinary drug diclofenac. Attempts at banning the drug have thus far been unsuccessful. By removing all carcasses, the birds helped to decrease pollution, disease spread, and suppressed undesirable mammalian scavengers. In their absence, the population of feral dogs and rats, along with their zoonotic diseases, has increased considerably.
In recent historical time (i.e. since ad 1500), the Oriental Region has lost at least 23 species/2 subspecies of vertebrates. Among the extinct forms 2 species/2 subspecies are mammals, 1 species is a bird, 18 species are amphibians, and 2 species are freshwater fishes. Another 13 species/1 subspecies are possibly extinct, and 1 species is currently extinct in the wild. In addition, there are 1002 species/51 subspecies currently threatened with extinction (that is to say, either Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List, as well as certain forms either listed as Data Deficient or Not Assessed but which are clearly at some risk of extinction). Of these, 103 species/38 subspecies are mammals, 62 species/9 subspecies are birds, 158 species/4 are reptiles, 244 species are amphibians, and 435 species are freshwater fishes.