The Mesoamerican Region
The Mesoamerican Region includes the tropical areas of Mexico and all the remainder of Central America into northernmost South America north and west of the Andes, along with a few coastal islands. Whether it was previously a peninsula of North America, an island, or a chain of islands is still open to question, but in any case it has probably had its present form for about the last two million years. Because of its location between North and South America it has long served as a bridge for animals between the two continents. As a result, it has an unusually rich fauna representing elements of both.
Species and subspecies
The mantled howler (Alouatta palliata) is a type of monkey divided into five subspecies found collectively from southern Mexico to north-western South America. The rufous mantled howler (A. p. palliata) is found from southern Guatemala to western Panama. The southern mantled howler (A. p. aequatorialis) is confined to the lowland rainforests of Panama, western Colombia, western Ecuador, and extreme north-western Peru. The Azuero mantled howler (A. p. trabeata) is confined to the Azuero Peninsula of southcentral Panama. The Yucatán black howler (A. pigra) has a range that largely corresponds with the limits of the Yucatán Rainforest, where it remains locally common in protected areas. In other areas it is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
Geoffroy’s spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) is divided into a number of subspecies. The Nicaraguan spider monkey (A. g. geoffroyi) is confined to extreme south-eastern Nicaragua, possibly extending into northern Costa Rica. The northern spider monkey (A. g. vellerosus) is found in both highland and lowland forests from south-eastern Mexico (Veracruz, San Luis Potosí, Tabasco, and Oaxaca), through Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador be around. The ornate spider monkey (A. g. ornatus) is confined to Costa Rica and western Panama. The grizzled spider monkey (A. g. grisescens) is confined to Panama and north-western Colombia. The brown-headed spider monkey (A. fusciceps) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (A. f. fusciceps) is confined to north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas province), west of the Andes. Only two populations remain, one in the Chongon Colonche Mountain range, and the other in the Cotacachi-Cayapas Reserve and surrounding forests. The red-thighed spider monkey (A. f. rufiventris) ranges from the Cordillera Occidental in south-western Colombia to eastern Panama. All are threatened by habitat destruction, hunting, and in some areas overcollection for the pet trade.
The equatorial white-fronted capuchin (Cebus aequatorialis) is a type of monkey confined to coastal Ecuador and extreme north-western Peru, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat. The total population is thought to be around 300.
The cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) is a type of small monkey found in north-western Colombia (Atlántico, Sucre, Cordoba, Bolívar, Antioquia, and Chocó departments). Up to 40,000 of these animals are thought to have been captured and exported to the United States for use in biomedical research prior to 1976, when they were finally given protection and all international trade was banned. Owing to massive habitat destruction and illegal collection for use as pets, however, the species remains one of the world’s rarest primates, with the total wild population in 2010 estimated at around 7400.
Baird’s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) was historically found throughout the lowland and montane rainforests of Central America from southern Mexico to north-western Colombia, although always in the vicinity of lakes, rivers, and marshes. Owing to habitat destruction and hunting it has disappeared from much of its former range.
The northern tiger cat or oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus) is a small spotted cat found disjunctly from Costa Rica and Panama and throughout the Amazon basin to central Brazil. The Central American tiger cat (L. t. oncilla) is confined to eastern Venezuela, Guyana, and north-eastern Brazil.
The pygmy spotted skunk (Spilogale pygmaea) is found patchily in coastal south-western Mexico, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and feral dogs and cats. The little woolly mouse opossum (Marmosa phaea) is found along the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental and the outlying lowlands of south-western Colombia, western Ecuador, and far north-western Peru.
Allen’s cotton rat (Sigmodon alleni) occurs along the western slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra Madre del Sur of south-western Mexico, as well as in scrubby lowland areas. It is threatened by loss of habitat in many parts of its range as well as by the destruction of its burrows by livestock.
Osgood’s deer mouse (Peromyscus simulus) is confined to a small area of coastal south-western Mexico (Sinaloa and Nayarit).
Two cave-roosting bats of the genus Balantiopteryx are seriously threatened by loss of habitat. The Ecuadorian sacwinged bat (B. infusca) is known only from two small, disjunct areas of central-western Colombia (Valle del Cauca) and north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas province). Thomas’ sacwinged bat (B. io) is confined to lowland forests in southern Mexico (Veracruz and Oaxaca), northern Guatemala, and Belize.
The greater long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris nivalis) is found over a wide area from the south-western United States (southeastern Arizona) through much of Mexico to Guatemala. It is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat, disturbance of its roosts, and human persecution.
The unexpected fruit-eating bat (Artibeus inopinatus) is a little-known species found along the Pacific versant of El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Dry forests in this region are subject to considerable habitat destruction.
The Chocó broad-nosed bat (Platyrrhinus chocoensis) is found patchily in eastern Panama, western Colombia, and north-western Ecuador.
The grey-backed hawk (Pseudastur occidentalis) is a rare species found patchily in western Ecuador and adjacent parts of north-western Peru, where it has been seriously impacted by deforestation.
The plumbeous forest falcon (Micrastur plumbeus) is found in south-western Colombia (Chocó, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, and Nariño departments) and north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces), where it is generally rare.
Two subspecies of spotted owl (Strix occidentalis), previously discussed, are threatened by loss of habitat. The starry spotted owl (S. o. lucida) occurs in northern and central Mexico, while the México spotted owl (S. o. juanaphillipsae) is known only from the state of México.
The great curassow (Crax rubra) is a large, pheasant-like bird whose nominate form (C. r. rubra) is found patchily throughout much of Central America from eastern Mexico to western Ecuador. It has undergone a considerable and continuing decline due to hunting and habitat destruction, and is now uncommon or extirpated throughout much of its range.
The Baudó guan (Penelope ortoni) is a type of ground bird found in the Andean foothills of western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador, where it is highly sensitive to hunting and habitat destruction. Large areas of its historical range have already been destroyed.
The rufous-vented ground cuckoo (Neomorphus geoffroyi) is a large, terrestrial species that is divided into several subspecies found widely but disjunctly in Central and South America. Salvin’s rufous-vented ground cuckoo (N. g. salvini) occurs from Nicaragua south through Costa Rica and Panama to north-western Colombia. It is threatened by habitat destruction.
The rufous-headed chachalaca (Ortalis erythroptera) is a rare type of ground bird known only from a few localities in extreme south-western Colombia, western Ecuador, and adjacent north-western Peru. It is threatened by habitat loss and hunting.
The brown wood rail (Aramides wolfi) is a rare species known only from a small number of localities in western Colombia, western Ecuador, and possibly north-western Peru.
The Chocó tinamou (Crypturellus kerriae) is a type of small ratite bird known only from a few localities in southern Panama (Darién province) and western Colombia (Chocó department).
The military macaw (Ara militaris) is found widely but very disjunctly in northern Central America and western South America, where it is divided into three subspecies. The Mexican military macaw (A. m. mexicana) was formerly found throughout Mexico but has been extirpated from many areas due to habitat destruction and collection for the international pet trade. The great green macaw (A. ambiguus) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (A. a. ambiguus) is found patchily from Honduras to north-western Colombia, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Several species of Amazon parrot (Amazona) are threatened by habitat destruction and collection for the international pet trade. The lilacine Amazon (A. lilacina) is found patchily within mangrove and dry forest patches in coastal Ecuador. The lilac-crowned Amazon (A. finschi) is confined to the Pacific coast of Mexico. The yellow-naped Amazon (A. auropalliata) remains relatively widespread in southern Mexico, southern Guatemala, eastern and western Honduras, El Salvador, eastern and western Nicaragua, and north-western Costa Rica. The yellow-headed Amazon (A. oratrix) is normally divided into four subspecies. The nominate form (A. o. oratrix) is found disjunctly in coastal south-western Mexico (Jalisco, Michoacán, Guerrero, and Oaxaca) and eastern and south-eastern Mexico (Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Veracruz, Chiapas, Tabasco, and Campeche). The Honduran yellowheaded Amazon (A. o. hondurensis) is found disjunctly in northern Honduras and eastern Guatemala. The Belize yellow-headed Amazon (A. o. belizensis) is confined to coastal Belize.
The grey-cheeked parakeet (Brotogeris pyrrhoptera) is found very patchily in western Ecuador and extreme northwestern Peru, where it is threatened by trapping for the cage bird trade and habitat destruction.
The Azuero parakeet (Pyrrhura eisenmanni) is confined to Cerro Hoya National Park on the Azuero Peninsula of southcentral Panama (Veraguas and Los Santos provinces).
The ruddy pigeon (Patagioenas subvinacea) is divided into a number of subspecies found across central and northern South America, all of which are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The Isthmian ruddy pigeon (P. s. subvinacea) is found in Costa Rica and Panama. Berlepsch’s ruddy pigeon (P. s. berlepschi) ranges from southwestern Panama and along Colombia’s Pacific coast to southwestern Ecuador.
The purple quail-dove (Geotrygon purpurata) is found over a relatively wide area of south-western Colombia and north-western Ecuador, but is everywhere rare and threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
The brown-backed dove (Leptotila battyi) is a rare species confined to the Pacific coast of south-central Panama, on the Azuero Peninsula, and the islands of Cébaco and Coiba. The ochre-bellied dove (L. ochraceiventris) is found disjunctly in western and south-western Ecuador and north-western Peru.
The keel-billed motmot (Electron carinatum) is a type of passerine bird historically known from a number of isolated localities across much of Central America, including southern Mexico, southern Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and north-central Costa Rica. It is threatened by loss of habitat.
The turquoise cotinga (Cotinga ridgwayi) is a rare type of passerine bird from central and southern Costa Rica and western Panama. It is threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.
The yellow-billed cotinga (Carpodectes antoniae) is found patchily in the Pacific lowlands of Costa Rica and western Panama, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.
The bare-necked umbrellabird (Cephalopterus glabricollis) is a large and spectacular passerine bird that inhabits both the mountains and lowlands of south-eastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and western Panama. The long-wattled umbrellabird (C. penduliger) is found patchily in south-western Colombia and western Ecuador. Both have been seriously impacted by habitat destruction and hunting.
The three-wattled bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata) is a type of passerine bird that breeds in the mountains of Costa Rica, from where it migrates to western Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. It is threatened by habitat destruction, particularly in its lowland wintering areas.
The yellow-green tanager (Bangsia flavovirens) is known only from a few localities within the lower Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in south-western Colombia (Narino and Valle del Cauca departments) and north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces). It is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Pacific royal flycatcher (Onychorhynchus occidentalis) is a naturally rare species that seems to favour isolated forest patches in coastal Ecuador and north-western Peru (Tumbes department).
The grey-breasted flycatcher (Lathrotriccus griseipectus) is found in western Ecuador and north-western Peru, where the population is small and severely fragmented due to ongoing loss of habitat.
The tawny-chested flycatcher (Aphanotriccus capitalis) is found patchily in the mountains of north-central Costa Rica as well as in the lowland hills of south-eastern Nicaragua.
The slaty becard (Pachyramphus spodiurus) is a type of passerine bird found patchily in western Ecuador and far north-western Peru, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The blackish-headed spinetail (Synallaxis tithys) is a type of ovenbird found patchily in south-western Ecuador (Manabí, Guayas, El Oro, and Loja provinces) and north-western Peru (Tumbes and Piura departments).
The ochraceous attila (Attila torridus) is a rare type of passerine bird known from a few localities in south-western Colombia, western Ecuador and north-western Peru.
The speckled antshrike (Xenornis setifrons) is a rare species found patchily in the mountains and lowlands of eastern Panama and north-western Colombia.
The henna-hooded foliage-gleaner (Clibanornis erythrocephalus) is a generally uncommon passerine bird found disjunctly in western and south-western Ecuador and northwestern Peru.
The saffron siskin (Spinus siemiradzkii) is a rare type of finch confined to coastal south-western Ecuador (Manabí, Santa Elena, Guayas, and Loja provinces) and adjacent northwestern Peru (Tumbes department).
The black-polled yellowthroat (Geothlypis speciosa) is a type of warbler known only from a few scattered wetland areas in south-central Mexico (Guanajuato, Michoacán, and México states). The Altamira yellowthroat (G. flavovelata) is confined to freshwater marshes and grassland patches within the Gulf slope of north-eastern Mexico. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Chocó vireo (Vireo masteri) is a type of passerine bird known from a few disjunct localities in western Colombia and north-western Ecuador.
The Mexican woodnymph (Thalurania ridgwayi) is a type of hummingbird found patchily in coastal south-western Mexico (southern Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima), where it lives in a wide range of habitats and altitudes.
The Honduran emerald (Amazilia luciae) is a type of hummingbird confined to a few pockets within the arid interior valleys of Honduras.
The Sinaloan thornscrub tortoise (Gopherus evegoodei) is a newly described species confined to hilly desert areas of north-western Mexico (Sinaloa).
Gray’s box turtle (Terrapene carolina mexicana) is a little known subspecies from north-eastern Mexico (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, and San Luis Potosí).
The southern Honduran spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura praeocularis) is confined to a small area of southern Honduras (Francisco Morazán and Choluteca departments), where it lives in a wide range of habitats and altitudes. The yellowbacked spiny-tailed iguana (C. flavidorsalis) is found is southern Guatemala, western Honduras, and northern El Salvador. The black-chested spiny-tailed iguana (C. melanosterna) is confined to a small area of northern Honduras and two offshore cays. All are threatened by habitat destruction, hunting for their meat, and feral dogs, cats, and rats.
Key’s tegu (Teuchocercus keyi) is a type of lizard known from four small protected areas in north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces).
The red-eyed wood lizard (Enyalioides oshaughnessyi) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia and north-western Ecuador.
The greater knob-scaled lizard (Xenosaurus grandis) is currently divided into five subspecies (X. g. grandis, X. g. agrenon, X. g. arboreus, X. g. rackhami, and X. g. sanmartinesis) living in a wide range of habitats and disjunct population pockets across southern Mexico and in central Guatemala. All are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international pet trade.
Boulenger’s least gecko (Sphaerodactylus scapularis) is confined to north-western Ecuador (Esmereldas province) and Gorgona Island (Colombia).
Bocourt’s anole (Anolis baccatus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1873 from an undefined locality in Mexico. The Pacific anole (A. subocularis) is known only from a few scattered localities in south-western Mexico (Guerrero).
Bogert’s coral snake (Micrurus bogerti) is known only from a few specimens collected from a small area of coastal southern Mexico (Oaxaca). Two subspecies of Oaxacan coral snake (M. ephippifer) are threatened by loss of habitat. The nominate form (M. e. ephippifer) and the Zapotec coral snake (M. e. zapotectus) are both found patchily within a small area of south-western Mexico (Oaxaca).
The blackbelly garter snake (Thamnophis melanogaster) is a highly aquatic species that remains fairly widespread in north-central Mexico. It has undergone significant declines due to agricultural and industrial water pollution.
Dunn’s tropical ground snake (Trimetopon simile) is known only from two widely separated areas in north-western and eastern Costa Rica, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Dumerill’s glasstail snake (Urotheca dumerilli) is known only from four specimens of doubtful provenance, but thought to have originated in central-west Colombia (Chocó department).
McCranie’s centipede snake (Tantilla psittaca) is known only from a few areas of lowland rainforest and open pine savanna in eastern Honduras.
Stadelman’s worm snake (Amerotyphlops stadelmani) is found patchily in northern and north-western Honduras, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The variable stubfoot toad (Atelopus varius) historically occurred throughout both the mountains and outlying lowlands of Costa Rica and western Panama, but has now been reduced to a few surviving populations.
The Río Aloapan tree frog (Exerodonta abdivita) is known only from a few localities in southern Mexico (northern Oaxaca).
The lemur leaf frog (Agalychnis lemur) was historically found throughout much of Costa Rica, Panama, and, marginally, north-western Colombia, but has undergone a massive decline in the western part of its range due to the fungal disease chytridiomycosis.
The mottled glass frog (Nymphargus balionota) is known only from a few small, scattered localities in south-western Colombia (Cauca and Valle del Cauca departments) and Ecuador (Carchi and Pichincha provinces). It is threatened by loss of habitat.
The horned marsupial frog (Gastrotheca cornuta) occurs in humid lowland and pre-montane forests in southern Costa Rica, Panama, western Colombia, and western Ecuador, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and chytridiomycosis.
The confusing poison dart frog (Ameerega maculata) is known only from its original collection in 1873 from an unspecified locality in Panama, and is most likely extinct.
The splendid poison dart frog (Oophaga speciosa) was historically confined to a few localities in western Panama (Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí provinces). Not reported for many years despite extensive searches, it is now thought to be extinct. Two other species are threatened by loss of habitat and, potentially, chytridiomycosis. The polkadot poison dart frog (O. arborea) is confined to a small area of lowland and pre-montane rainforest in north-western Panama. Vicente’s poison dart frog (O. vicentei) is confined to lowland and pre-montane rainforest in north-central Panama. A small, disjunct population to the south-east of this range has since been extirpated.
The Pichincha rocket frog (Hyloxalus toachi) is confined to a few localities in north-western Ecuador, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Guatemalan stream frog (Ptychohyla panchoi) is known only from a few population pockets in east-central Guatemala.
The Copan brook frog (Duellmanohyla soralia) is confined to lowland and highland rainforest areas of the Omoa and Espíritu Santo ranges of north-western Honduras, and to the Caral Range in eastern Guatemala. The Salvavida brook frog (D. salvavida) is known from lowland and highland rainforest areas of northern Honduras. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and possibly chytridiomycosis.
The orange robber frog (Pristimantis degener) is known only from three locations within a small area of south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas province), where it is threatened by loss of habitat and pesticide pollution from the spraying of illegal crops. Coloma’s robber frog (P. colomai) is confined to the Andean foothills of south-western Colombia (Nariño and Valle del Cauca departments) and north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces).
Several rain frogs of the genus Craugastor are threatened by loss of habitat and, potentially, chytridiomycosis. The Olancho-Colón rain frog (C. epochthidius) is known only from north-eastern Honduras, where it may be extinct. The Charadra rain frog (C. charadra) is confined to both highland and lowland areas along the Guatemala/Honduras border. The flesh-bellied rain frog (C. persimilis) is confined to central and south-eastern Costa Rica. The monstrous rain frog (C. pelorus) is found patchily in southern Mexico (northern Chiapas and central and southern Tabasco, and southern Veracruz). Werner’s rain frog (C. laevissimus) is found patchily in Honduras and Nicaragua. The pygmy rain frog (C. pygmaeus) is found in widely scattered pockets of southern and south-western Mexico and southern Guatemala. The Azuero rain frog (C. azueroensis) is confined to a small area of the Azuero Peninsula in south-central Panama. The goldcollecting rain frog (C. aurilegulus) is found patchily in northern Honduras. The small rain frog (C. ranoides) is found in south-eastern Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The brook-dwelling rain frog (C. amniscola) is known from a few localities in southern Mexico (Chiapas) and western Guatemala.
The pine forest stream frog (Ptychohyla macrotympanum) is known from a few disjunct areas of southern Mexico (Chiapas and Tabasco) and western Guatemala (Huehuetenango department), where it is threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis.
The yellowbelly climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa flaviventris) is confined to a small area of southern Mexico (southern Chiapas) and western Guatemala (San Marcos department), where it lives in lowland and pre-montane forest patches as well as on plantations.
The false Cienega Colorado worm salamander (Oedipina pseudouniformis) is confined to four widely scattered pockets of both montane and lowland forest in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.
Mountains and Highlands
The Mesoamerican Region is extremely mountainous and includes the biologically important Madrean ranges along with the Central American and Isthmian Highlands. Together these provide a wide range of ‘sky-island’ habitats such as montane rainforests, drier pine–oak forests, and grasslands.
The narrow-nosed harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys tenuirostris) is found in southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas) and in central and southern Guatemala, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Darién small-eared shrew (Cryptotis mera) is known only from a narrow elevational band in the Darién and Pirre ranges of eastern Panama and north-western Colombia.
The Darién broad-nosed bat (Platyrrhinus aquilus) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Darién and Pirre ranges of eastern Panama and northwestern Colombia.
The trumpet-nosed bat (Musonycteris harrisoni) is confined to the mountains of south-western Mexico (Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero, Morelos, and Puebla). It is threatened by habitat destruction.
The horned guan (Oreophasis derbianus) is a large, turkeylike bird found sporadically in the high mountain forests of southern Mexico (Chiapas) and southern Guatemala. It is rapidly decreasing due to habitat destruction.
The highland guan (Penelopina nigra) is found patchily in the mountains of southern Mexico, southern Guatemala, western and central Honduras, north-central Nicaragua, and El Salvador, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) is today largely endemic to the montane forests of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The range formerly extended into the highlands of the south-western United States (Arizona and New Mexico), but the species was extirpated from there by the early 1990s due to loss of habitat, hunting, and overcollection for the international pet trade. Attempts to reintroduce a population into Arizona have been unsuccessful. These birds appear to be largely dependent upon old nesting hole made by the now extinct imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis), which may have been a factor in their decline. In 2014 the total population was estimated at around 2000.
The ocellated quail (Cyrtonyx ocellatus) is found in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and northern Nicaragua, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The bearded wood partridge (Dendrortyx barbatus) is found patchily in the southern part of the Sierra Madre Oriental and in the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca of eastern Mexico, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is a long-tailed, brightly coloured trogon notable for being the sacred bird of the Aztecs. Two subspecies are found in the cloud forests of Central America. The northern resplendent quetzal (P. m. mocinno) occurs in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) was the largest known woodpecker that ever lived. Sometimes called the Mexican ivory-billed woodpecker, it was a spectacular species with a toy-trumpet-like voice that inhabited the entire Sierra Madre Occidental, with additional isolated populations as far south as Puebla in southern Mexico and as far east as Monterrey. The loss of old-growth pine–oak forests combined with hunting pressures resulted in the rapid destruction of the species, which appears to have survived in the central part of the Sierra Madre Oriental up until the 1990s. Now certainly extinct, all that remains are a few museum specimens and a brief film clip taken in Mexico in 1956 (the year of the last confirmed sighting).
The slender-billed grackle (Quiscalus palustris) was historically found in wetlands, cultivated areas, and even towns in central Mexico, but later became confined to the marshes of Lake Lerma near Mexico City due to intense hunting pressure. It is thought to have become extinct around 1910, when almost all of the wetlands complex was drained.
The dwarf jay (Cyanolyca nanus) is a rare species found patchily in the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre de Oaxaca of eastern and southern Mexico.
The white-fronted swift (Cypseloides storeri) is an enigmatic species known only from a few specimens and sight records originating in south-western Mexico (Guerrero, Michoacán, and Jalisco).
The Sierra Madre sparrow (Xenospiza baileyi) was historically found in highland grasslands in extremely disjunct areas of central and southern Mexico within the Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexican Plateau, and Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. It is now known only from a small area of north-eastern Jalisco, south-western Durango, and, possibly a few other localities in México state and the Federal District.
The Pirre warbler (Basileuterus ignotus) is confined to a small area of the Darién and Pirre ranges in eastern Panama, where it is generally uncommon.
The pink-headed warbler (Cardellina versicolor) is found patchily in southern Mexico (central and south-eastern Chiapas) and west-central Guatemala, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
Günther’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia oaxacae) is found patchily in the southern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca and eastern Sierra Madre del Sur of southern Mexico (central Oaxaca).
The shipwreck anole (Anolis naufragus) is confined to the southern part of the Sierra Madre Occidental and a small area of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca of eastern Mexico (Puebla, Veracruz, and Hidalgo), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Pueblan spiny lizard (Sceloporus megalepidurus) is confined to a small area of the southern Sierra Madre Oriental and northern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca in southern Mexico (Puebla and Veracruz).
The black-tailed horned pit viper (Mixcoatlus melanurus) is confined to a few areas in the mountains of southern Mexico (Puebla and Oaxaca).
The slender-horned pit viper (Ophryacus undulatus) is confined to a few areas of the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre del Sur in southern Mexico (Hidalgo, Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Guerrero).
The Tancitaran dusky rattlesnake (Crotalus pusillus) is found patchily in the mountains of south-western Mexico.
The short-tail alpine garter snake (Thamnophis scaliger) is found patchily in central Mexico on the Central Plateau and in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.
Cope’s mountain meadow snake (Adelophis copei) is found patchily in the mountains of western Mexico.
Joana’s black-striped snake (Coniophanes joanae) is known only from two widely separated localities in central and southern Panama. It was last collected in 1969. Cope’s stripeless snake (C. lateritius) is known only from a handful of specimens collected in the mountains of western Mexico.
The Rio Verde night snake (Hypsiglena tanzeri) is known only from three specimens collected from the mountains of north-eastern Mexico (Querétaro and San Luis Potosí).
The Michoacán slender blind snake (Rena bressoni) is confined to a small area of southern Mexico (central Michoacán).
The three-lined centipede snake (Tantilla triseriata) is known only from three cloud forest areas in southern Mexico (north-central and south-eastern Oaxaca).
The large-crested toad (Incilius macrocristatus) is found patchily in southern Mexico (eastern Oaxaca and Chiapas) and western Guatemala.
Three spike-thumb tree frogs of the genus Plectrohyla are seriously threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis. Hartweg’s spike-thumb tree frog (P. hartwegi) is found patchily in southern Mexico (eastern Oaxaca and southern Chiapas) and southern Guatemala. The Guatemalan spike-thumb tree frog (P. guatemalensis) is found in southern Mexico (southeastern Chiapas), southern Guatemala, north-western and central Honduras, and northern El Salvador. The forest spikethumb tree frog (P. glandulosa) is known from western and southern Guatemala.
Four spike-thumb tree frogs of the genus Sarcohyla are threatened by loss of habitat. The aquatic spike-thumb tree frog (S. crassa) is known only from a few localities in southern Mexico (central Oaxaca). Hazel’s spike-thumb tree frog (S. hazelae) is found patchily in southern Mexico (central and southern Oaxaca) The lesser bromeliad spike-thumb tree frog (S. arborescandens) is found patchily in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre de Oaxaca of eastern Mexico. The mourning spike-thumb tree frog (S. pentheter) is known from a few scattered localities in southern and southwestern Mexico (Oaxaca and Guerrero).
The variegated tree frog (Megastomatohyla mixomaculata) is known only from a few localities in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental and northern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca of eastern Mexico (Veracruz and Puebla).
The Puebla tree frog (Exerodonta xera) is found patchily in a small area of southern Mexico (central Puebla and northern Oaxaca).
The Porthole tree frog (Charadrahyla taeniopus) is confined to the south-central Sierra Madre Oriental (Hidalgo, Puebla, and Veracruz) and adjacent areas of the northern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca.
The polymorphic rain frog (Craugastor rhodopis) is largely confined to eastern Mexico (western Veracruz, Hidalgo, and Puebla), with further disjunct populations in central and south-eastern Chiapas. The lined rain frog (C. lineatus) is found patchily in southern Mexico and southern Guatemala. Both are threatened by habitat destruction.
The Patzcuaro rain frog (Eleutherodactylus angustidigitorum) and the rufous rain frog (E. rufescens) are both found patchily in the northern Sierra Madre del Sur and Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.
The yellow-peppered salamander (Ambystoma flavipiperatum) is confined to two localities in south-western Mexico (Jalisco).
Bell’s false brook salamander (Isthmura bellii) occurs mainly along the western and southern margins of the Mexican Plateau, with isolated populations in the mountains of north-western and southern Mexico. It is declining everywhere due primarily to loss of habitat.
Several species of false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea) are threatened by loss of habitat. Werler’s false brook salamander (P. werleri) is known sporadically from the mountains of southern Mexico (Veracruz and Oaxaca). The black-spotted false brook salamander (P. nigromaculata) is known only from two localities in the northern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca and another in the Tuxtlas Range, perhaps representing two distinct species. Lynch’s false brook salamander (P. lynchi) and the black false brook salamander (P. melanomolga) are both found patchily in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental and northern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca of eastern Mexico (Veracruz and Puebla). Gadow’s false brook salamander (P. gadovii) is found patchily in eastern Mexico (Veracruz, Tlaxcala, and Puebla).
Salvin’s climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa salvinii) is confined to southern Guatemala, with an additional isolated population in El Salvador. The longnose climbing salamander (B. rostrata) is found patchily in southern Mexico (extreme southeastern Chiapas) and western Guatemala. Both are threatened by habitat destruction.
The Mexican Plateau
The Mexican Plateau (Altiplanicie Mexicana in Spanish) is a large arid to semi-arid plateau located in northern and central Mexico. Averaging 1825 m above sea level, it extends from the United States border in the north to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the south, and is bounded by the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra Madre Oriental. A low, east– west mountain range in the state of Zacatecas divides the plateau into northern and southern sections (the Mesa del Norte and Mesa Central). Both are mainly covered by desert and xeric shrublands, with pine–oak forests historically covering the interior and surrounding mountain ranges and forming ‘sky islands’.
The Northern Plateau
The Northern Plateau (Mesa del Norte in Spanish) is located in north-central Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosí).
The Mexican prairie marmot (Cynomys mexicanus) was historically widespread within the montane grasslands and valleys of north-central Mexico. The encroachment of wheat fields and livestock into its habitat greatly reduced its range and many colonies were deliberately destroyed by poisoning. It is now very rare, being confined to a grassland region at the convergence of the states of San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León, and Coahuila.
The lined pocket gopher (Chaetodipus lineatus) is confined to a small area of Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi.
Goldman’s spiny lizard (Sceloporus goldmani) is known only from a single locality in southern Coahuila (which may now be extirpated) and another in north-central San Luis Potosí. Smith’s spiny lizard (S. maculosus) is found patchily within a small area of east-central Durango and south-western Coahuila.
The venerable collared lizard (Crotaphytus antiquus) is confined to a small area within the Sierra San Lorenzo Texas and Sierra Solis in south-western Coahuila.
The Coahuila fringe-toed lizard (Uma exsul) is confined to a few scattered areas of western Coahuila.
The Bolsón night lizard (Xantusia bolsonae) is a rare species known only from a small area of central Durango.
The Alvarez Range (Sierra de Alvarez in Spanish) is located in San Luis Potosí.
The Alvarez earth snake (Geophis latifrontalis) is known only from its original collection in the 1880s.
The Gavia Range (Sierra de la Gavia in Spanish) is a low mountain range located in Coahuila.
The Gavia spiny lizard (Sceloporus cyanostictus) is confined to two isolated localities within the Gavia Range.
The Central Plateau
The Central Plateau (Mesa Central in Spanish) is located in south-central Mexico (Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Morelos, Puebla, and Michoacán). It is higher than its northern counterpart and contains numerous valleys originally formed by ancient lakes. A number of major cities and much of Mexico’s population is found here.
Bolaño’s woodrat (Neotoma palatina) is confined to a small area of Jalisco and Zacatecas.
The Los Reyes deer mouse (Peromyscus sagax) is known only from a small area of Michoacán.
Forbes’ anole (Anolis forbesi) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1950s from west-central Puebla.
Duges’ pygmy skink (Plestiodon dugesii) occurs in montane forest fragments of south-central Mexico (Guanajuato and Michoacán).
The black-headed snake (Coniophanes melanocephalus) is known only from two specimens collected in Morelos and Puebla.
The Central Plateau rain frog (Eleutherodactylus maurus) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Michoacán and Morelos.
The upland burrowing tree frog (Smilisca dentata) is confined to two areas of high-elevation flooded grassland in Aguascalientes and extreme north-eastern Jalisco.
The blunthead salamander (Ambystoma amblycephalum) is confined to a small area around Tacicuaro in northwestern Michoacán.
The Chignahuapan splayfoot salamander (Chiropterotriton orculus) is confined to the southern and eastern margins of the Mexican Plateau.
The Sierra Madre Occidental
The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range running parallel to the Pacific coast of Mexico. It extends some 1250 km from just south of the Arizona–Sonora border southeast to Guanajuato state, where it joins with the Sierra Madre del Sur and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Pine–oak forests are found throughout the range at elevations of 1500–3000 m.
The Sinaloan martin (Progne sinaloae) breeds semicolonially in sheer cliff faces throughout the Sierra Madre Occidental, from where it presumably migrates to South America in winter. The total population is small and known to be declining for reasons as yet unknown.
Two subspecies of spotted box turtle (Terrapene nelsoni) are endemic to the Sierra Madre Occidental. Nelson’s spotted box turtle (T. n. nelsoni) and Klauber’s spotted box turtle (T. n. klauberi) remain little-known and their distributions illdefined, but are likely vulnerable to habitat destruction.
Lemos-Espinal’s leopard frog (Lithobates lemosespinali) is a semi-aquatic species confined to two small areas in the northern Sierra Madre Occidental (south-western Chihuahua).
Duellman’s rain frog (Eleutherodactylus teretistes) is known only from two widely separated localities in the Sierra Madre Occidental (southern Sinaloa and south-western Nayarit).
The Tarahumara Range
The Tarahumara Range (Sierra Tarahumara in Spanish) is located in north-western Mexico (Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, and Durango). It is a dramatic landscape of steep mountains formed by a high plateau that has been cut through with canyons, among them Copper Canyon, which is larger and deeper even than the Grand Canyon of Arizona.
Stejneger’s alligator lizard (Barisia levicollis) is known only from northern Mexico (Chihuahua).
Ditmar’s horned lizard (Phrynosoma ditmarsi) was long known only from three specimens collected during the early twentieth century. It has since been found in a few small areas of eastern Sonora.
The Opata whiptail lizard (Aspidoscelis opatae) is confined to a small area of north-western Sonora.
The multi-lined skink (Plestiodon multilineatus) is confined to two widely separated localities in centralwestern Chihuahua.
The long-tailed rattlesnake (Crotalus stejnegeri) is confined to the south-central Sierra Madre Occidental (western Durango and south-eastern Sinaloa).
Webb’s mountain kingsnake (Lampropeltis webbi) is known only from a few specimens collected from Sinaloa and Durango states.
Fox’s mountain meadow snake (Adelophis foxi) is known only from a small area of relictual montane pine forest in south-western Durango, where it was last collected in 1981.
The spotted garter snake (Thamnophis nigronuchalis) is confined to a small area of central-western Mexico (southwestern Durango).
The Sierra Madre Occidental snail-sucker (Tropidodipsas repleta) is a type of snake known only from two specimens collected from Sonora and Chihuahua, respectively.
The marbled rain frog (Eleutherodactylus saxatilis) is confined to a small area of south-central Mexico (north-western Durango and adjacent Sinaloa).
The pine woods salamander (Ambystoma silvense) is known only from two widely separated localities (Durango and Chihuahua).
The Huichola Range
The Huichola Range (Sierra Huichola in Spanish) is located in central-western Mexico (Zacatecas, Nayarit, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, and Guanajuato).
Buller’s chipmunk (Neotamias bulleri) is confined to a small area of southern Durango, western Zacatecas, and northern Jalisco.
The Sierra Madre Oriental
The Sierra Madre Oriental is a long range of high mountains located in north-eastern Mexico. It extends for 1000 km from the Rio Grande on the Coahuila/Texas border south to central Mexico, where it joins the east–west running Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The climate is generally dry in the north and wetter in the south, with pine–oak forests at higher elevations (1000–3500 m) supporting an abundant biodiversity and a large number of endemic species. Sadly, it is highly threatened by logging and other forms of habitat destruction.
The Perote ground squirrel (Xerospermophilus perotensis) is confined to a small area of Puebla and Veracruz, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.
The Tamaulipan woodrat (Neotoma angustapalata) is confined to east-central Mexico (south-western Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosí).
Nelson’s giant deer mouse (Megadontomys nelsoni) is confined to a few localities on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in south-eastern Hidalgo and Veracruz.
The Jico deer mouse (Habromys simulatus) is known from two localities on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental (southern Hidalgo and central Veracruz). One of these populations is potentially already extirpated, and the other is thought to number fewer than 50.
Two deer mice of the genus Peromyscus endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. The Perote deer mouse (P. bullatus) is known only from a single locality in western Veracruz. The El Carrizo deer mouse (P. ochraventer) is confined to a small area of Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosí.
Miller’s shrew (Sorex milleri) occurs in scattered pockets of high-elevation wet montane forests in Coahuila and Nuevo León.
Villa’s grey shrew (Notiosorex villai) is known only from a few specimens collected in north-eastern Mexico (southwestern Tamaulipas).
The flat-headed mouse-eared bat (Myotis planiceps) is confined to a small area of montane forest in Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Zacatecas. It was thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 2004.
The maroon-fronted parrot (Rhynchopsitta terrisi) is confined to a few areas of Nuevo León, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas, where the total population in 2016 was thought to be around 3500.
Worthen’s sparrow (Spizella wortheni) historically occurred throughout much of the Sierra Madre Oriental, but is now confined to only a few disjunct localities.
The bromeliad arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia taeniata) is found patchily from southern Tamaulipas and northern Querétaro south to southern Hidalgo, north-eastern Veracruz, and northern Puebla, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international pet trade.
The pygmy alligator lizard (Gerrhonotus parvus) is known only from a small area on north-eastern Mexico (central Nuevo León), where it prefers dry limestone canyons.
The Peña Blanca spiny lizard (Sceloporus exsul) is known only from a single deep canyon in eastern Mexico (Querétaro), where it has not been recorded in several decades despite repeated surveys.
Gaige’s tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma gaigeae) is confined to a small area of northern Querétaro and northwestern Hidalgo.
Two species of spiny lizard (Sceloporus) endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. Chaney’s spiny lizard (S. chaneyi) is confined to southern Nuevo León and south-western Tamaulipas. The Oberon spiny lizard (S. oberon) is confined to a small area of southern Coahuila and central Nuevo León.
The flathead knob-scaled lizard (Xenosaurus platyceps) is confined to extreme south-eastern Tamaulipas. Newmans’ knob-scaled lizard (X. newmanorum) is known only from two disjunct localities in San Luis Potosí and Veracruz. Both are threatened by loss of habitat, predation by feral cats, and human persecution.
The Petlalcala montane pit viper (Cerrophidion petlalcalensis) is known only from Cerro Petlalcala in western Veracruz.
Hardy’s hook-nosed snake (Ficimia hardyi) is a specialized species known only from two localities in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental (Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí).
Taylor’s snake (Chersodromus rubriventris) is known only from three specimens collected from southern San Luis Potosi and adjacent northern Querétaro.
Three species of graceful brown snake (Rhadinaea) endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. The Nuevo León graceful brown snake (R. montana) is confined to a small area of western Nuevo León. The five-lined graceful brown snake (R. quinquelineata) is known only from northern Puebla, Querétaro, and possibly Guanajuato. Marcella’s graceful brown snake (R. marcellae) is known only from four small, disjunct areas of cloud forest in San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, and Puebla.
The Mexican yellow-bellied brown snake (Storeria hidalgoensis) is found in fragmented populations throughout the eastern and south-central regions of the Sierra Madre Oriental (Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, and Hidalgo).
Two species of centipede snake (Tantilla) endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental are threatened by conversion of their habitat into coffee plantations. Shaw’s centipede snake (T. shawi) is known only from two localities in south-eastern San Luis Potosí and north-western Veracruz. The robust centipede snake (T. robusta) is known only from a single locality in northern Puebla.
The large-crested toad (Incilius cristatus) has historically been reported from a few scattered localities within the central Sierra Madre Oriental (Puebla and Veracruz). Once thought to be extinct, small numbers are known to occur at two localities in northern Puebla (Apulco and Barranca de Xocoyolo).
Three spike-thumb tree frogs of the genus Sarcohyla endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. The semi-aquatic spike-thumb tree frog (S. pachyderma) is known only from a single locality in central Veracruz. Roberts’ spike-thumb tree frog (S. robertsorum) is known only from a few scattered localities in Hidalgo Puebla and Tlaxcala. Duellman’s spike-thumb tree frog (S. charadricola) is known only from a few localities in Hidalgo and northern Puebla.
Godman’s tree frog (Tlalocohyla godmani) is confined to a few areas in the central and southern Sierra Madre Oriental (Querétaro, Puebla, and Veracruz).
The Puebla leopard frog (Lithobates pueblae) is known only from a single locality in central-eastern Mexico (Puebla). Last recorded in 1948, extensive searches in recent years have failed to find it and the species is most likely extinct.
The Miquihuana rain frog (Craugastor batrachylus) is known only from a single locality in southwestern Tamaulipas.
Dennis’ rain frog (Eleutherodactylus dennisi) is known only from a single locality in southern Tamaulipas, where it inhabits caves.
The giant false brook salamander (Isthmura gigantea) is known from the eastern margins of the Sierra Madre Oriental (Hidalgo, Puebla, and Veracruz).
Two salamanders of the genus Aquiloeurycea endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. The Cuetzalan salamander (A. quetzalanensis) is confined to a small area of northern Puebla. The Galeana salamander (A. galeanae) is found patchily in southern Nuevo León and south-western Tamaulipas.
Several species of splayfoot salamander (Chiropterotriton) endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. The cave splayfoot salamander (C. mosaueri) was long known only from a single cave near the town of Durango in east-central Mexico (northern Hidalgo). Last seen in 1941, it was thought to be extinct until 2010, when a population was found in another cave nearby. The arboreal splayfoot salamander (C. arboreus) is known only from a small patch of montane forest around Tianguistengo in north-eastern Hidalgo. The graceful splayfoot salamander (C. cracens) is known only from the Rancho del Cielo Biosphere Reserve in Tamaulipas. The toothy splayfoot salamander (C. multidentatus) occurs in a few scattered localities in southern San Luis Potosi, southern Tamaulipas, and southern Hidalgo. The Hidalgo population might belong to an undescribed species. The pygmy splayfoot salamander (C. lavae) is known only from a single locality in centralwestern Veracruz. The big-footed splayfoot salamander (C. magnipes) is known only from south-eastern San Luis Potosi and eastern Querétaro, where it has not been seen in many years, despite searches. The dwarf splayfoot salamander (C. dimidiatus) is known only from a small area of southcentral Hidalgo. The terrestrial splayfoot salamander (C. terrestris) is known for certain only from a small area of cloud forest in north-eastern Hidalgo. The gristle-headed splayfoot salamander (C. chondrostega) is known only from a few scattered localities in Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Querétaro, and Puebla.
The Tamaulipas Range
The Tamaulipas Range (Sierra de Tamaulipas in Spanish) is an isolated mountain range in north-eastern Mexico (southern Tamaulipas). The area has been little-surveyed.
The Tamaulipas coral snake (Micrurus tamaulipensis) is known only from four specimens collected from a cattle ranch about 50 km north of Gonzalez, in the Tamaulipas Range.
The Tamaulipan montane garter snake (Thamnophis mendax) is confined to two areas in the Tamaulipas Range.
The Abra Tanchipa Range
The Abra Tanchipa Range (Sierra del Abra Tanchipa in Spanish) is located in eastern Mexico (eastern San Luis Potosí and adjacent southern Tamaulipas).
The cave tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma micropholis) is known from no more than five caves within the Abra Tanchipa Range.
The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Eje Volcánico Transversal in Spanish) is a chain of active and dormant volcanoes that extends 1000 km across an east–west area of central-southern Mexico, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. Its peaks are very high and several are snow-topped year-round. Most are covered by pine–oak forest and, in the upper elevations, by montane grassland.
The volcano rabbit (Romerolagus diazi) has an extremely limited range in discontinuous patches of pine and bunchgrass (‘zacaton’) on the upper-middle slopes of four volcanoes (Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl, El Pelado, and Tlaloc). It has apparently disappeared from some of its historical distribution in the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, including the eastern slopes of Iztaccihuatl and the Nevada de Toluca, and the remaining habitat has long been under threat due to habitat destruction and degradation despite lying within Izta- Popo and Zoquiapan national parks. This tiny rabbit is not used as food, but continues to be illegally shot for target practice.
The big pocket gopher (Orthogeomys lanius) is confined to small, isolated pine–oak forest pockets in central Veracruz.
The Michoacán pocket gopher (Zygogeomys trichopus) is confined to Cerro Tancítaro, Cerro Patambán, and Cerro del Burro in Michoacán.
Nelson’s woodrat (Neotoma nelsoni) is known only from the Orizaba and Cofre de Perote volcanoes.
Goldman’s diminutive woodrat (Nelsonia goldmani) is confined to a few isolated localities in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (México, Jalisco, Michoacán, and Colima).
The Jaliscan spiny pocket mouse (Heteromys spectabilis) is known only from a few areas of montane forest in southwestern Mexico (south-eastern Jalisco).
The delicate deer mouse (Habromys delicatulus) is known only from a single montane forest remnant in México state.
Herrera’s alligator lizard (Barisia herrerae) is confined to the southern slopes of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in northern and extreme north-eastern Morelos state and parts of adjacent México state. The roughneck alligator lizard (B. rudicollis) occurs in México, Michoacán, and perhaps Morelos states.
Depp’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia deppii) is an uncommon species from Guerrero and México states.
The Michoacán earth snake (Geophis maculiferus) is known only from a single locality in extreme eastern Michoacán. The Tarascan earth snake (G. tarascae) is known only from two small, widely separated areas (Colima Volcano in Jalisco and central Michoacán).
Three species of false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea) endemic to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt are threatened by loss of habitat. The black-footed false brook salamander (P. tlilicxitl) is confined to a small area of México and Morelos. The longtail false brook salamander (P. longicauda) is confined to two localities in Michoacán and México states. The Morelos false brook salamander (P. altamontana) is confined to a small area of México, Morelos, and Distrito Federal.
The mountain stream salamander (Ambystoma altamirani) is confined to a few isolated populations to the west and south of the Valley of Mexico (Morelos and México states as well as Distrito Federal).
The Taxco Range
The Taxco Range (Sierra de Taxco) is located in Guerrero and México states.
Schmidly’s deer mouse (Habromys schmidlyi) is confined to the Taxco Range.
The Tigre Range
The Tigre Range (Sierra del Tigre) is located in southern Jalisco state.
Alcorn’s pocket gopher (Pappogeomys bulleri alcorni) is confined to the Tigre Range, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat and persecution as a farm pest.
Mount Orizaba
Mount Orizaba (Pico de Orizaba in Spanish, and also known as Citlaltépetl) is a dormant stratovolcano located at the eastern end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, on the border between Veracruz and Puebla states. The highest mountain in Mexico and the second most prominent peak in the world after Mount Kilimanjaro, it rises dramatically to a glacier-topped height of 5636 m. The mountain is somewhat protected within Pico de Orizaba National Park.
The Pico de Orizaba alligator lizard (Mesaspis antauges) is known only from two specimens collected during the nineteenth century. Several efforts have been made to rediscover it, without success.
Two species of pygmy salamander (Thorius) are endemic to Mount Orizaba. The spotted pygmy salamander (T. spilogaster) is confined to the southern and south-eastern flanks. At one time very common, it has undergone massive declines due to loss of its pine–oak forest habitat and is nowadays rarely recorded. The crescent-nostriled pygmy salamander (T. lunaris) is similarly restricted, if slightly less threatened.
Tancítaro Volcano
Tancítaro Volcano (Volcán Tancítaro in Spanish) is located in western Michoacán.
The Tancítaro rattlesnake (Crotalus tancitarensis) is known only from three specimens collected on Tancítaro Volcano, the first in 1941 and two more in 2002.
Cofre de Perote Volcano
Cofre de Perote Volcano (Volcán Cofre de Perote in Spanish) is an extinct shield volcano located in Veracruz state. One of Mexico’s highest mountains, it and the surrounding area are protected as Cofre de Perote National Park.
The voiceless spike-thumb tree frog (Sarcohyla siopela) is known only from the west slope of Cofre de Perote, at 2500–2550 m.
The Cofre de Perote salamander (Isthmura naucampatepetl) is known only from six specimens collected on Cofre de Perote and its satellite peak, Cerro Volcancillo. It has not been recorded for decades and may be extinct.
Xitle Volcano
Xitle Volcano (Volcán Xitle in Spanish) is located in southern Distrito Federal, within Cumbres del Ajusco National Park.
The great rain frog (Eleutherodactylus grandis) is known only from a small area within the lava fields of Xitle Volcano.
Nevado de Toluca Volcano
Nevado de Toluca Volcano (Volcán Nevado de Toluca in Spanish, and also known as Xinantecatl) is an enormous stratovolcano located about 80 km west of Mexico City in México state. It and the surrounded area lie within Nevado de Toluca National Park.
Roberts’ false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea robertsi) is confined to Nevado de Toluca Volcano.
Mount Tlaloc
Mount Tlaloc (also known as Tlalocatepetl) is an extinct volcano located near Mexico City in México state.
Leora’s stream salamander (Ambystoma leorae) was historically confined to a few localities within Iztaccihuatl- Popacatépetl National Park, on the border between México and Puebla states. It has long since disappeared from the heavily polluted Frío de Juárez River, and is now thought to survive in only a single locality on Mount Tlaloc.
The Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
The Sierra Madre de Oaxaca is located in south-central Mexico, primarily in the state of Oaxaca but also including parts of eastern Puebla and western Veracruz. The range begins south of Pico de Orizaba and continues in a southeasterly direction for 300 km to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Peaks average around 2500 m in elevation, with some exceeding 3000 m. The eastern slopes are wetter and historically covered with humid montane forests up to 1600 m, where they are replaced by pine–oak forests. The western slopes are generally covered by dry forests, with the Tehuacan Valley in the north-west notably featuring a region of xeric matorral. There has been considerably deforestation throughout.
The Oaxacan giant deer mouse (Megadontomys cryophilus) is known only from a small area of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca.
The Puebla deer mouse (Peromyscus mekisturus) is known only from two specimens collected from south-eastern Puebla. The black-wristed deer mouse (P. melanocarpus) is confined to the Zempoaltépec, Juárez, and Mazteca ranges in northcentral Oaxaca.
The big Mexican small-eared shrew (Cryptotis magna) is known from a few areas within the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The large-toothed shrew (Sorex macrodon) is known only from a handful of specimens collected prior to the late 1950s in Oaxaca, Puebla, and Veracruz.
Tihen’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia fuscolabialis) is known only from a few specimens collected from three localities during the 1940s. The green arboreal alligator lizard (A. graminea) is confined to a small area of Veracruz and Puebla.
The Oaxaca knob-scaled lizard (Xenosaurus phalaroanthereon) is known only from two small areas within the southern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca.
Lowe’s tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma lowei) is known only from a single locality in northern Oaxaca. The Cerro Lachiguiri tropical night lizard (L. dontomasi) is known only from its original collection in the 1940s from Cerro Lachiguiri in Oaxaca. The Yautepec tropical night lizard (L. radula) is known only from two localities in southern and central Oaxaca.
Hall’s spiny lizard (Sceloporus halli) is known only from its original collection during the 1970s from south-central Oaxaca. Salvin’s spiny lizard (S. salvini) is known only from three widely scattered localities within the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca.
Cope’s anole (Anolis cymbops) is known only from its original collection in the 1860s from central Veracruz. Miller’s anole (A. milleri) is known only from a small area of north-central Oaxaca.
The Oaxaca dwarf boa (Exiliboa placata) is known from the Juárez and Mixe ranges in north-central Oaxaca.
The Zapotitlán Salinas coral snake (Micrurus pachecogili) is known only from a small area of southern Mexico (southeastern Puebla). The cloud forest coral snake (M. nebularis) is known only from a few specimens collected in central Oaxaca.
Hallberg’s cloud forest snake (Cryophis hallbergi) is known from the Juárez and Mazateca ranges in northcentral Oaxaca.
The ribbon graceful brown snake (Rhadinaea fulvivittis) is found patchily from central Veracruz through south-eastern Puebla to central and northern Oaxaca.
The Cerro Aquila earth snake (Geophis chalybeus) is known only from two specimens collected during the nineteenth century. Blanchard’s earth snake (G. blanchardi) is known only from four specimens.
The striped centipede snake (Tantilla striata) is known only from two localities in east-central Oaxaca.
The spiculate toad (Incilius spiculatus) is confined to a few localities on the northern slopes of the Juárez and Mixe ranges.
The tan-edged spike-thumb tree frog (Sarcohyla cyclada) is known only from a few localities within the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca.
The Oaxacan cloud forest tree frog (Charadrahyla nephila) is known from the Juárez and Mixe ranges in northcentral Oaxaca.
Duellman’s tree frog (Megastomatohyla nubicola) is known from two cloud forest localities (central Veracruz and southern Puebla).
The greater bromeliad tree frog (Bromeliohyla dendroscarta) is known from central Veracruz and northern Oaxaca. Last seen in 1974, it suffered massive declines due to habitat destruction and, most likely, chytridiomycosis, and was feared extinct until its rediscovery in 2011.
The gloomy mountain stream frog (Ptychohyla zophodes) is known from the Mazateca, Juárez, and Mixe ranges of north-central Oaxaca.
Smith’s rain frog (Craugastor spatulatus) is known only from two widely separated localities in central Veracruz and north-central Oaxaca.
Cope’s splayfoot salamander (Chiropterotriton chiropterus) is known only from a single locality in central Veracruz.
Several false brook salamanders of the genus Pseudoeurycea endemic to the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca are seriously threatened by habitat destruction. The claw-toothed false brook salamander (P. unguidentis) is known only from a small area of north-central Oaxaca, where repeated searches have failed to locate it. The species is most likely extinct. The moustached false brook salamander (P. mystax) and Smith’s false brook salamander (P. smithi) are both known only from three scattered localities in central Oaxaca. Firschein’s false brook salamander (P. firscheini) is confined to a few localities in south-eastern Puebla and western Veracruz. The orangetailed false brook salamander (P. ruficauda) is known only from two localities in northern Oaxaca. The Cuautlapan false brook salamander (P. lineola) is confined to a small area of western Veracruz.
The Oaxacan false brook salamander (Isthmura boneti) is known only from a single locality in north-central Oaxaca state.
Townsend’s dwarf salamander (Parvimolge townsendi) is confined to an area of montane forest in central and southern Veracruz, where it has only been recorded once since 1997 despite repeated efforts to locate it.
Several species of pygmy salamander (Thorius) endemic to the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca are threatened by loss of habitat. The La Hoya pygmy salamander (T. minydemus) is known only from central Veracruz, where it may be extinct. The Cerro San Felipe pygmy salamander (T. pulmonaris) is known only from Cerro San Felipe in central Oaxaca. Schmidt’s pygmy salamander (T. schmidti) is known only from a single locality in southern Puebla. The Juárez pygmy salamander (T. adelos) is known only from three isolated localities in north-central Oaxaca. The Veracruz pygmy salamander (T. pennatulus) is confined to central Veracruz. The troglodyte pygmy salamander (T. troglodytes) is known only from two localities in central Veracruz and northern Puebla. The big-footed pygmy salamander (T. magnipes) and the Acultzingo pygmy salamander (T. dubitus) are both confined to a small area of western Veracruz and eastern Puebla. McDiarmid’s pygmy salamander (T. munificus) is confined to a small area of central Veracruz.
The Juárez Range
The Juárez Range (Sierra de Juárez in Spanish) is located in north-central Oaxaca state. It is separated from the Zongólica Range to the north by the Santo Domingo River.
The Tarabundi vole (Microtus oaxacensis) is confined to the eastern slopes of the Juárez Range, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Juárez alligator lizard (Mesaspis juarezi) is confined to the northern slopes of the Juárez Range.
The Juárez anole (Anolis rubiginosus) is confined to the Juárez Range.
The Juárez earth snake (Geophis juarezi) is known only from a single locality within the Juárez Range.
The Juárez graceful brown snake (Rhadinaea bogertorum) is known only from a small area of the Juárez Range.
The blue-eyed spike-thumb tree frog (Sarcohyla cyanomma) is known only from high elevations on Cerro Pelón and Cerro Humo in the Juárez Range, where it may already be extinct. The Sabrina spike-thumb tree frog (S. sabrina) is known only from a single locality within the Juárez Range.
The Vista Hermosa tree frog (Megastomatohyla mixe) is known only from a single locality within the Juárez Range.
The Vista Hermosa fringe-limbed tree frog (Ecnomiohyla echinata) is known only from a single locality on the northern slopes of the Juárez Range. It has undergone a dramatic decline most likely due to chytridiomycosis, and may already be extinct.
The Vista Hermosa rain frog (Craugastor polymniae) is known only from a single locality within the Juárez Range.
The warty mountain stream frog (Quilticohyla acrochorda) is confined to the Juárez Range.
The Juárez brook frog (Duellmanohyla ignicolor) is known only from a small area of the Juárez Range.
Four species of false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea) endemic to the Juárez Range are threatened by loss of habitat. The leaping false brook salamander (P. saltator) is known only from a single locality. The muscular false brook salamander (P. papenfussi), Juárez false brook salamander (P. juarezi), and orchileucos false brook salamander (P. orchileucos) are all rare and patchily distributed.
Several species of pygmy salamander (Thorius) endemic to the Juárez Range are seriously threatened by loss of habitat. The Pápalo pygmy salamander (T. papaloae) is known only from a single locality in northern Oaxaca, where a large part of its pine forest habitat was destroyed by fire in 1998. The surprise pygmy salamander (T. insperatus) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1990s from northern Oaxaca. Smith’s pygmy salamander (T. smithi) is known only from a small area of northern Oaxaca. The arboreal pygmy salamander (T. arboreus) is known only from a small area of the Juárez Range. The Boreas pygmy salamander (T. boreas) is known only from two localities. MacDougall’s pygmy salamander (T. macdougalli) is confined to a few localities in the Juárez Range.
Peña Verde is the northernmost peak in the Sierra de Juárez.
The Peña Verde false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea aurantia) is confined to a small area just west of Peña Verde. Totontepec is located in central-eastern Oaxaca state. The aquatic false brook salamander (P. aquatica) is known only from three specimens collected in 1978 near Totontepec Villa de Morelos. The only known Mesoamerican plethodontid salamander to live aquatically in streams, its original habitat has long been destroyed and it is now thought to be extinct.
Mount Pelón (Cerro Pelón in Spanish) is located in northcentral Oaxaca state.
The Chinanteco deer mouse (Habromys chinanteco) is confined to Mount Pelón.
Mitchell’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia mitchelli) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Pelón.
The Pelón spike-thumb treefrog (Sarcohyla calvicollina) and the concealed spike-thumb treefrog (S. celata) are confined to Mount Pelón, where they are seriously threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis.
The golden pygmy salamander (Thorius aureus) is known only from a small area centred on Mount Pelón. Mount Machim (Cerro Machim in Spanish) is located in north-central Oaxaca.
The Ixtlán deer mouse (Habromys ixtlani) is known only from the cloud forest atop Mount Machim.
The Mazateca Range
The Mazateca Range (Sierra de Mazateca in Spanish) is located in northern Oaxaca.
The ridgetail false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea obesa) is known only from five specimens collected from the vicinity of Plan de Guadalupe, a high-elevation mountain pass in the Mazateca Range.
The Zempoaltépec Range
The Zempoaltépec Range (Sierra Zempoaltépec in Spanish) is located in central Oaxaca state.
The slender-tailed deer mouse (Habromys lepturus) is confined to cloud forest atop Mount Zempoaltépec.
The Zempoaltépec vole (Microtus umbrosus) is confined to cloud forest atop Mount Zempoaltépec.
The Mixe Range
The Mixe Range (Sierra Mixe in Spanish) is located in northcentral Oaxaca state.
The speckled spike-thumb tree frog (Sarcohyla psarosema), yellow-robed spike-thumb tree frog (S. labeculata), and the Cerro Las Flores spike-thumb tree frog (S. ephemera), as presently defined, are all confined to small areas of the Mixe Range.
The Zongólica Range
The Zongólica Range (Sierra de Zongólica in Spanish) is located in Veracruz state.
The Zongólica blind catfish (Rhamdia zongolicensis) is known only from a single cave within the Zongólica Range, where it lives in stagnant pools.
The Mixteca Range
The Mixteca Range (Sierra Mixteca in Spanish) is located in south-central Mexico in the states of Puebla and Oaxaca.
The Mixteca arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia mixteca) is known only from a small area of montane forest in the Mixteca Range, with an additional specimen having been collected from the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero. It has declined owing to overcollection for the international pet trade.
The Mixteca Alta spike-thumb tree frog (Sarcohyla ameibothalame) is a little-known species confined to montane forests in north-western Oaxaca.
The Mixteca false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea mixteca) is confined to a few localities in Puebla and Oaxaca.
The Sierra Madre del Sur
The Sierra Madre del Sur is located in south-western Mexico, extending 1000 km from southern Michoacán and east through Guerrero to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in eastern Oaxaca.
The Omiliteme cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus insonus) is known from fewer than 10 specimens collected within a small area of south-central Guerrero, and may be extinct.
Baker’s small-toothed harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys bakeri) is known only from two localities in central Guerrero.
Thomas’ giant deer mouse (Megadontomys thomasi) is confined to montane forest in central Guerrero state.
Two deer mice of the genus Peromyscus endemic to the Sierra Madre del Sur are threatened by loss of habitat. The black-tailed deer mouse (P. melanurus) is confined to southwestern Oaxaca. The Coalcomán deer mouse (P. winkelmanni) is known only from two widely separated localities (southern Michoacán and western Guerrero).
The Oaxacan broad-clawed shrew (Cryptotis peregrina) is known only from two localities in western Oaxaca.
The white-throated jay (Cyanolyca mirabilis) is a rare species found patchily within the Sierra Madre del Sur.
The white-tailed hummingbird (Eupherusa poliocerca) is found patchily in Guerrero and western Oaxaca, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The short-crested coquette (Lophornis brachylophus) is a type of hummingbird with an extremely restricted distribution along a short stretch of the Atoyac-Paraíso-Perto del Gallo Road, north-west of Acapulco (Guerrero).
Martín del Campo’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia martindelcampoi) is known only from the vicinity of Omiltemi in Guerrero state.
The Tarascan tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma tarascae) is known from two widely separated localities in Michoacán state (Mexiquillo on the Pacific coast and from the Coalcomán Range).
The Oaxaca spiny lizard (Sceloporus subpictus) is confined to a small area of the southern Sierra Madre del Sur (central western Oaxaca).
The Autlán rattlesnake (Crotalus lannomi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1966 from southern Jalisco.
Barbour’s montane pit viper (Mixcoatlus barbouri) is confined to central Guerrero.
The Oaxacan cat-eyed snake (Tantalophis discolor) is known only from a small area of north-western Oaxaca.
Two species of graceful brown snake (Rhadinaea) endemic to the Sierra Madre del Sur are threatened by loss of habitat. Myers’ graceful brown snake (R. myersi) is known only from central Oaxaca. The Omiltemi graceful brown snake (R. omiltemana) is known only from central Guerrero.
The Puerto del Gallo graceful mountain snake (Rhadinophanes monticola) is known only from a single locality in south-central Guerrero.
Sara’s striped snake (Coniophanes sarae) is known only from two specimens collected in southern Michoacán.
The Guerreran hook-nosed snake (Ficimia ruspator) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1940s from Guerrero state.
Sallae’s earth snake (Geophis sallaei) is known only from its original collection in the 1890s from southern Oaxaca. Siebold’s earth snake (G. sieboldi) is known only from a few specimens collected in the nineteenth century from Michoacán and/or Guerrero. The widecollar earth snake (G. laticollaris) and the red earth snake (G. russatus) are both known only from their original collection in the 1960s from western Oaxaca.
Two species of centipede snake (Tantilla) endemic to the Sierra Madre del Sur are threatened by loss of habitat. The yellow-lined centipede snake (T. flavilineata) is confined to a small area of west-central Oaxaca. The Oaxacan centipede snake (T. oaxacae) is known only from southern Oaxaca.
The Sierra Madre del Sur toad (Incilius cycladen) is confined to a relatively narrow altitudinal band on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and Oaxaca.
The Guerreran tree frog (Dryophytes arboricola) is confined to a small area in north-central Guerrero.
The black-eyed tree frog (Exerodonta melanomma) is found patchily in Guerrero and Oaxaca, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The yellow-bellied voiceless tree frog (Charadrahyla altipotens) is known from the Sierra Madre del Sur, where it has undergone a drastic decline most likely due to chytridiomycosis and may be extinct. The Mexican pinewoods tree frog (C. pinorum) is found patchily in south-central Guerrero and in western Oaxaca.
The Oaxacan yellow tree frog (Megastomatohyla pellita) is known from two areas of the Sierra Madre del Sur in southern Oaxaca. It has undergone a drastic decline most likely due to chytridiomycosis, and may be extinct.
Several species of spike-thumb tree frog (Sarcohyla) endemic to the Sierra Madre del Sur are seriously threatened by habitat destruction and chytridiomycosis. Caldwell’s spikethumb tree frog (S. cembra) was long known only from two localities in north-western and south-central Oaxaca. Thought to be possibly extinct, it was rediscovered in 2011–12. The golden spike-thumb tree frog (S. chryses) is known only from a single locality in north-central Guerrero. The grasping spike-thumb tree frog (S. labedactyla) is known only from a single locality in west-central Guerrero. Adler’s spike-thumb tree frog (S. thorectes) is known only from two localities in Oaxaca and Guerrero. The keel-snouted spike-thumb tree frog (S. mykter) is known only from a few localities in southcentral Guerrero.
The Guerreran leopard frog (Lithobates omiltemanus) is known only from a few localities within the Sierra Madre del Sur in south-western Mexico (Guerrera).
The Guerreran stream frog (Quilticohyla erythromma) is confined to central Guerrero.
Schultze’s stream frog (Ptychohyla leonhardschultzei) is found patchily in southern Oaxaca and southern Guerrero.
The Chilpancingo rain frog (Eleutherodactylus dilatus) is known only from a small area of north-central Guerrero. Dixon’s rain frog (E. dixoni) is known only from Agua del Obispo in central Guerrero. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
Savage’s rain frog (Craugastor uno) is known from a few isolated populations in Guerrero and Oaxaca. The Agua del Obispo rain frog (C. guerreroensis) is known only from a single locality in south-central Guerrero. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and possibly chytridiomycosis.
The southern giant salamander (Isthmura maxima), the largest of all tropical salamanders, is known only from three localities in western and south-central Oaxaca and eastern Guerrero.
Three species of climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa) endemic to the Sierra Madre del Sur are threatened by habitat destruction. The Zapotec climbing salamander (B. zapoteca) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Oaxaca. The Atoyac climbing salamander (B. oaxacensis) is confined to a small area of south-central Oaxaca. Rilett’s climbing salamander (B. riletti) is confined to a small area of western Oaxaca.
Several species of false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea) endemic to the Sierra Madre del Sur are threatened by loss of habitat. Anita’s false brook salamander (P. anitae) is known only from a single locality near San Vicente Lachixío, Oaxaca. Last reported in 1976, it is possibly extinct due to the drying out of its habitat. The green-flecked false brook salamander (P. tlahcuiloh) is confined to a small area of south-central Guerrero near Mount Teótepec. Conant’s false brook salamander (P. conanti) is known only from a few widely scattered localities in southern Oaxaca. The brown-streaked false brook salamander (P. mixcoatl) is known only from a small area of central Guerrero. Cochran’s false brook salamander (P. cochranae) is found sporadically in central Oaxaca.
Several species of pygmy salamander (Thorius) endemic to the Sierra Madre del Sur are threatened by loss of habitat. The Omilteme pygmy salamander (T. omiltemi) is confined to a small area of central Guerrero. The grand pygmy salamander (T. grandis) is confined to a small area of south-central Guerrero. The minute pygmy salamander (T. minutissimus) was long known only from its original collection in 1949 from south-eastern Oaxaca. Two more specimens were discovered at the same locality in 2001. Taylor’s pygmy salamander (T. narisovalis) is found sporadically in central and westcentral Oaxaca.
The Coalcomán Range
The Coalcomán Range (Sierra de Coalcomán in Spanish) is located in Michoacán and Jalisco states. It is usually considered to be part of the Sierra Madre del Sur, despite being separated from it by the deep canyon of the lower Balsas River.
The Coalcomán earth snake (Geophis incomptus) is confined to an area of the Coalcomán Range in Jalisco. Pyburn’s earth snake (G. pyburni) is known only from its original collection in 1977 from south-western Michoacán.
The Tarascos Range
The Tarascos Range (Sierra de los Tarascos in Spanish) is located in west-central Michoacán state.
The Tarascos centipede snake (Tantilla cascadae) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Tarascos Range in 1939.
The Atoyac Range
The Atoyac Range (Sierra de Atoyac in Spanish) is located in south-central Guerrero state.
Mount Teótepec (Cerro Teótepec in Spanish) has been heavily deforested for logging and agriculture.
The spine-fingered tree frog (Charadrahyla trux) is confined to Mount Teótepec, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and possibly chytridiomycosis.
Three species of false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea) were historically found on Mount Teótepec. The imperial false brook salamander (P. ahuitzotl) and the Teótepec false brook salamander (P. teotepec) are both known only from the slopes of Mount Teótepec, where they were last observed in the 1960s. They are most likely extinct. The bearded false brook salamander (P. tenchalli) is known only from a single locality on Mount Teótepec.
The Atoyac pygmy salamander (Thorius infernalis) is known only from a single locality in south-central Guerrero.
The Malinaltepec Range
The Malinaltepec Range (Sierra de Malinaltepec in Spanish) is located in south-eastern Guerrero state.
The Malinaltepec false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea amuzga) is confined to the Malinaltepec Range.
The Miahuatlán Range
The Miahuatlán Range (Sierra de Miahuatlán in Spanish) is located in southern Oaxaca state.
Phillip’s small-eared shrew (Cryptotis phillipsii) is confined to the Miahuatlán Range.
The blue-capped hummingbird (Eupherusa cyanophrys) is confined to the Miahuatlán Range.
Liner’s tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma lineri) is confined to the Miahuatlán Range.
Tanner’s spiny lizard (Sceloporus tanneri) is known only from a single locality in the Miahuatlán Range.
The Miahuatlán spike-thumb tree frog (Sarcohyla miahuatlanensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Miahuatlán Range.
The Tuxtlas Range
The Tuxtlas Range (Sierra de Los Tuxtlas in Spanish) is located is southern Mexico along the south-eastern coast of Veracruz state. The Los Tuxtas Biosphere Reserve (Biósfera Los Tuxtlas) includes the coastal and higher elevations of the range, but provides little in the way of actual protection.
The Tuxtlas quail-dove (Zentrygon carrikeri) is confined to the Tuxtlas Range.
Duellman’s anole (Anolis duellmani) is confined to the Tuxtlas Range.
The Tuxtlas snail-eating snake (Sibon linearis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1983 from the Tuxtlas Range.
Julia’s earth snake (Geophis juliai) is known only from lowland rainforest areas within the Tuxtlas Range.
Slavens’ centipede snake (Tantilla slavensi) is known only from five specimens collected from the Tuxtlas Range.
The Tuxtlas toad (Incilius cavifrons) is confined to the Tuxtlas Range.
The large-eared rain frog (Craugastor megalotympanum) and the Vulcan rain frog (C. vulcani) are both confined to the Tuxtlas Range.
The Tuxtlas false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea orchimelas) is confined to the Tuxtlas Range.
Santa Marta Volcano
Santa Marta Volcano (Volcán Santa Marta in Spanish) is one of the higher mountains in the range, rising about 1700 m. Its upper flanks are still covered with tropical rainforest, although the lower elevations have been deforested.
The Santa Marta galliwasp (Celestus ingridae) is a type of lizard known only from the slopes of Santa Marta Volcano.
Chiszar’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia chiszari) is known only from the slopes of Santa Marta Volcano.
The Santa Marta false coral snake (Pliocercus wilmarai) is confined to cloud forest on Santa Marta Volcano.
San Martín Tuxtla Volcano
San Martín Tuxtla Volcano (Volcán San Martín Tuxtla in Spanish) is the only recently active volcano in the range, having erupted in 1664 and again in 1793. As with Santa Marta Volcano it is covered by tropical rainforests in the upper elevations and stunted pasture and grassland on the lower slopes.
Nelson’s small-eared shrew (Cryptotis nelsoni) was long known only from its original collection on the western slope of San Martín Tuxtla, near the summit, in 1894. It has since been found on other parts of the volcano and in an area north-west of nearby Catemaco Lake.
Reid’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia reidi) is known only from a couple of specimens collected from San Martín Tuxtlas Volcano.
Mora’s snake (Conophis morai) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1999 from the south-eastern slope of San Martín Tuxtla Volcano.
The San Martín fringe-limbed tree frog (Ecnomiohyla valancifer) is confined to San Martín Tuxtlas Volcano.
The San Martín pygmy salamander (Thorius narismagnus) is confined to San Martin Tuxtla Volcano. Last seen in the 1980s, it may be extinct.
The Sierra Madre de Chiapas
The Sierra Madre de Chiapas extends from southern Mexico (Oaxaca and Chiapas) through south-western Guatemala and western El Salvador. The El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve in Chiapas provides the most important remaining area of protection in a region that has been extensively deforested.
Nelson’s spiny pocket mouse (Heteromys nelsoni) is known only from southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas) and adjacent south-western Guatemala.
The azure-rumped tanager (Tangara cabanisi) is confined to montane forest pockets in southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas) and south-western Guatemala, where it is threatened by conversion of its habitat into coffee plantations.
Three arboreal alligator lizards of the genus Abronia endemic to the Sierra Madre de Chiapas are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international pet trade. Matuda’s arboreal alligator lizard (A. matudai) is confined to south-western Guatemala and southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas). Ramirez’s arboreal alligator lizard (A. ramirezi) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1990s from southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas). Bocourt’s arboreal alligator lizard (A. vasconcelosii) is confined to south-western Guatemala.
Breedlove’s anole (Anolis breedlovei) is confined to a small area of southern Mexico (extreme south-eastern Oaxaca and adjacent Chiapas).
Posada’s graceful brown snake (Rhadinella posadasi) is confined to a small area of southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas) and western Guatemala (Quetzaltenango department), where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
Jan’s centipede snake (Tantilla jani) is known only from pre-montane forests in southern Guatemala. Johnson’s centipede snake (T. johnsoni) is known only from a single locality in southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas).
Two toads of the genus Incilius are endemic to the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, where they are threatened by habitat destruction. The Tacaná toad (I. tacanensis) is confined to southern Mexico (southern Chiapas) and western Guatemala (San Marcos and Quetzaltenango departments). The Chimalapas toad (I. tutelarius) is confined to southern Mexico (Oaxaca and Chiapas) and western Guatemala (Huehuetenango department).
Three species of spike-thumb tree frog (Plectrohyla) endemic to the Sierra Madre de Chiapas are threatened by habitat destruction and chytridiomycosis. The arcane spikethumb tree frog (P. sagorum) and the greater spike-thumb tree frog (P. avia) are both confined to southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas) and south-western Guatemala. A further record from north-western El Salvador likely represents an as-yet undescribed species. The pop-eyed spikethumb tree frog (P. lacertosa) is known only from two localities in southern Mexico (southern Chiapas).
Schmidts’ brook frog (Duellmanohyla schmidtorum) is found sporadically in southern Mexico (eastern Oaxaca and south-western Chiapas) and adjacent south-western Guatemala.
Four rain frogs of the genus Craugastor endemic to the Sierra Madre de Chiapas are threatened by habitat destruction. Gregg’s rain frog (C. greggi), Stuart’s rain frog (C. stuarti), and Matuda’s rain frog (C. matudai) are all known only from a few isolated populations in southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas) and south-western Guatemala. The Cerro Ovando rain frog (C. montanus) is known from a few localities in southern Mexico (southern Chiapas).
Two species of bromeliad salamander (Dendrotriton) endemic to the Sierra Madre de Chiapas are considered threatened. The Xolocalca bromeliad salamander (D. xolocalcae) is confined to Cerro Ovando in southern Mexico (southwestern Chiapas). The longnose bromeliad salamander (D. megarhinus) is confined to Cerro Pres Picos in southern Mexico (extreme south-western Chiapas).
The brown false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea brunnata), Goebel’s false brook salamander (P. goebeli), and the king false brook salamander (P. rex) are all confined to a few isolated populations in southern Mexico (south-eastern Chiapas) and south-western Guatemala, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.
The yellow-legged climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa flavimembris), Franklin’s climbing salamander (B. franklini), Müller’s climbing salamander (B. mulleri), and Engelhardt’s climbing salamander (B. engelhardti) are all confined to the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, where they are threatened by habitat destruction.
The narrow-footed worm salamander (Oedipina stenopodia) is confined to a small area of south-western Guatemala (San Marcos and Quezaltenango departments).
The Atravesada Range
The Atravesada Range (Sierra Atravesada in Spanish; also known as the Sierra de Niltepec) is located in southern Mexico (Oaxaca), on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
Bogert’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia bogerti) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1954 from the Atravesada Range.
Mount Baul (Cerro Baul in Spanish) is located in eastern Oaxaca.
The Baul arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia ornelasi) is confined to the cloud forest on Mount Baul.
The dwarf false brook salamander (Ixalotriton parva) is confined to the cloud forest on Mount Baul.
Tajumulco Volcano
Tajumulco Volcano (Volcán Tajumulco in Spanish) is a dormant stratovolcano located in south-western Guatemala (San Marcos department). At 4202mit is the highest peak in CentralAmerica.
The Tajumulco bromeliad salamander (Dendrotriton bromeliacius) is known only from montane forest patches on the southern slopes of the Tajumulco Volcano and adjacent volcanic highlands. Extremely common when first discovered in the 1930s, it is now very rare, although the reason for the decline remains unclear.
Tacaná Volcano
Tacaná Volcano (Volcán Tacaná in Spanish) is an active stratovolcano rising to 4060 m. It is located on the border between south-western Guatemala and southern Mexico, within the Volcan Tacaná Biosphere Reserve.
The Tacaná centipede snake (Tantilla tayrae) is known only from five specimens collected between 1970 and 1982.
Agua Volcano
Agua Volcano (Volcán de Agua in Spanish) is a stratovolcano located in south-central Guatemala (Sacatepéquez and Escuintla departments).
The Anzuetoi arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia anzuetoi) is known only from specimens collected during the twentieth century on the southern slopes of Agua Volcano.
The Central American Highlands
The Central American highlands (not to be confused with the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, which lie further to the west) are a range of mountains extending from southern Mexico through central Guatemala, southern Belize, eastern El Salvador, and much of central Honduras and Nicaragua. Surrounded by both lowland moist and dry forests, the slopes are covered by pine– oak forests between 600 and 1800 m, which are in turn are usually replaced by montane forests at higher elevations.
The striped rice rat (Handleyomys rhabdops) is known only from the Chelemha Cloud Forest Reserve in central Guatemala (Alta Verapaz department).
The Mayan deer mouse (Peromyscus mayensis) is known only from the area of Cerro Bobi in west-central Guatemala (Huehuetenango department).
The Honduran small-eared shrew (Cryptotis hondurensis) is known only from a small area of south-central Honduras (Francisco Morazán department).
The Guatemalan mouse-eared bat (Myotis cobanensis) is known only from two specimens collected in the 1950s from central Guatemala (Alta Verapaz department).
The bearded screech-owl (Megascops barbarus) inhabits montane pine–oak forests in southern Mexico (central Chiapas) and central and western Guatemala, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The mountain lesser galliwasp (Celestus montanus) is a type of lizard endemic to north-western Honduras and adjacent Guatemala. Boulenger’s galliwasp (C. bivittatus) occurs disjunctly in south-eastern Guatemala, western Honduras, and north-western Nicaragua.
A number of arboreal alligator lizards of the genus Abronia endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international pet trade. Campbell’s arboreal alligator lizard (A. campbelli) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Guatemala (Jalapa department). The brilliant arboreal alligator lizard (A. gaiophantasma) is known only from a few localities in south-central Guatemala. Hidalgo’s arboreal alligator lizard (A. salvadorensis) is confined to two localities in south-western Honduras (La Paz and Intibucá). Cope’s arboreal alligator lizard (A. fimbriata) is confined to south-central Guatemala. The Montecristo arboreal alligator lizard (A. montecristoi) is known only from Montecristo National Park on the El Salvador/Honduras/Guatemala border, and from one other locality in western Honduras.
The La Muralla anole (Anolis muralla) is known only from La Muralla National Park in east-central Honduras (Olancho department).
Two species of palm pit viper (Bothreichis) endemic to the Central America Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international pet trade. The yellowblotched palm pit viper (B. aurifer) is found patchily in southern Mexico (Chiapas) and Guatemala. March’s palm pit viper (B. marchi) is known for certain only from northern Honduras, but may also be found in extreme eastern Guatemala.
The Botaderos jumping pit viper (Atropoides indomitus) is known only from two unprotected localities in central and northern Honduras.
The cloud forest parrot snake (Leptophis modestus) is known from southern Mexico (north-eastern Chiapas) and parts of Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. It appears unable to adapt to habitat disturbance and is therefore particularly vulnerable.
Campbell’s snake (Chapinophis xanthocheilus) is known only from two localities in the Sierra de las Minas and Sierra de Xucaneb of south-central Guatemala.
Three graceful brown snakes of the genus Rhadinella endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. Hempstead’s graceful brown snake (R. hempsteadae) is known only from two localities in central-eastern Guatemala. The Texiguat graceful brown snake (R. tolpanorum) is known only from the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge in northern Honduras (Yoro and Atlantida departments). Merten’s graceful brown snake (R. montecristi) is found patchily in south-eastern Guatemala, northern El Salvador, and western Honduras.
Stadelman’s graceful brown snake (Rhadinaea stadelmani) is confined to the Cuchumatanes Range and the Cuilco Mountains of western Guatemala.
Three species of earth snake (Geophis) endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. Dunn’s earth snake (G. dunni) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1930s from an imprecise locality in northern Nicaragua (Matagalpa department). Damian’s earth snake (G. damiani) is known only from the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge in northern Honduras (Yoro and Atlantida departments). Mertens’ earth snake (G. fulvoguttatus) is found patchily in western Honduras and northern El Salvador.
Three species of burrowing snake (Adelphicos) endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. Dary’s burrowing snake (A. daryi) is known only from a small area of south-central Guatemala. Ibarras’ burrowing snake (A. ibarrorum) is known only from a single locality in south-central Guatemala. Stuart’s burrowing snake (A. veraepacis) is confined to west-central Guatemala.
Mena’s centipede snake (Tantilla lempira) is known only from three scattered localities in south-central Honduras. Baird’s centipede snake (T. bairdi) is known only from a single locality in south-central Guatemala (Alta Verapaz department), where it has not been recorded in many decades.
The Santa Bárbara worm snake (Amerotyphlops tycherus) is known only from a single, isolated karstic mountain in northern Honduras (Santa Bárbara department).
Bocourt’s tree frog (Dryophytes bocourti) is confined to the highlands of Guatemala (Alta Verapaz and Baja Verapaz departments), where it has undergone a serious decline due to pesticide pollution and, possibly, chytridiomycosis infection. Walker’s tree frog (D. walkeri) is found patchily in southern Mexico (central Chiapas) and south-central Guatemala.
The fairy tree frog (Charadrahyla chaneque) is known only from three localities east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico (northern Chiapas and eastern Oaxaca).
Two species of fringe-limbed tree frog (Ecnomiohyla) endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. The Copan fringe-limbed tree frog (E. salvaje) was historically known from a few localities in north-western Honduras, including Cerro Azul Copán National Park (where it may have been extirpated) as well as in Cusuco National Park. The Santa Cruz fringe-limbed tree frog (E. minera) is known only from two widely separated localities in central Guatemala.
Several spike-thumb tree frogs of the genus Plectrohyla endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. The Texiguat spike-thumb tree frog (P. chrysopleura) was formerly only known from Cerro Búfalo in the Nombre de Dios Range of north-central Honduras (Atlántida department), but has since been extirpated from there. The species has since been discovered in the nearby Texiguat Refuge. The Pokomchi spike-thumb tree frog (P. pokomchi) is confined to the Minas and Xucaneb ranges of south-central Guatemala. The Quechua spike-thumb tree frog (P. quecchi) is confined to south-central Guatemala. The Ixil spike-thumb tree frog (P. ixil) and the thorny spike-thumb tree frog (P. acanthodes) are both known only from widely separated areas of southern Mexico (north-western Chiapas) and western Guatemala. They presumably occur more widely.
A large number of rain frogs of the genus Craugastor endemic to the Central American Highlands are seriously threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis. The Olancho rain frog (C. olanchano) is known only from two localities in north-central Honduras (Olancho department), where it may be extinct. The Poza Turipache rain frog (C. pozo) is known only from a single locality in southern Mexico (west-central Chiapas). Bocourt’s rain frog (C. bocourti) is confined to east-central Guatemala. Emlen’s rain frog (C. emleni) is confined to a small area of southcentral Honduras. Stadelman’s rain frog (C. stadelmani) is found patchily in north-central Honduras. Dary’s rain frog (C. daryi) is confined to the Xucaneb and Minas ranges of south-central Guatemala. Sanderson’s rain frog (C. sandersoni) is found patchily in Belize and east-central Guatemala. Brocch’s rain frog (C. brocchi) is confined to southern Mexico (eastern Chiapas) and central Guatemala. The rivulet rain frog (C. rivulus) and the Xucaneb rain frog (C. xucanebi) are both confined to south-central Guatemala, while the Ibabal rain frog (C. aphanus) is confined to the Mico and Minas ranges of eastern Guatemala (Izabal department).
Barber’s sheep frog (Hypopachus barberi) is found in scattered areas of montane forest in southern Mexico (Chiapas), southern Guatemala, El Salvador, and western Honduras. It is threatened by logging of its pine–oak forest home.
The Honduran ditch frog (Leptodactylus silvanimbus) is known only from two localities in far western Honduras (Ocotepeque department).
Merten’s stream frog (Ptychohyla salvadorensis) is found patchily in south-eastern Guatemala, El Salvador, and western Honduras.
The Santa Bárbara bromeliad salamander (Dendrotriton sanctibarbarus) is confined to Montaña de Santa Bárbara, in west-central Honduras (Santa Bárbara department). The area is protected within Santa Bárbara National Park.
The Verapaz hidden salamander (Cryptotriton veraepacis) is confined to two localities in south-central Guatemala (Alto Verapaz and Baja Verapaz departments). Monzón’s hidden salamander (C. monzoni) is known only from two small areas of cloud forest in of south-eastern Guatemala. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
Three species of moss salamander (Nototriton) endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. The Saslaya moss salamander (N. saslaya) is known only from Cerro Sasalya and Cerro El Torro in Saslaya National Park, north-central Nicaragua. The wood-living moss salamander (N. lignicola) is known only from La Muralla and Montaña de Yoro national parks in north-central Honduras. The Santa Bárbara moss salamander (N. limnospectator) is known only from Montaña de Santa Bárbara and Cerro Azul Meambar national parks in west-central Honduras.
A large number of climbing salamanders (Bolitoglossa) endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. The Monte Escondido climbing salamander (B. decora) is known only from Monte Escondido within La Muralla National Park in north-central Honduras (Olancho department). Dunn’s climbing salamander (B. dunni) is known only from three disjunct localities in south-eastern Guatemala and western Honduras. The Comayagua climbing salamander (B. oresbia) is confined to a small area of west-central Honduras (Comayagua department). The Pijol climbing salamander (B. porrasorum) is confined to a few scattered localities in northern Honduras. Some of the populations may represent as-yet undescribed species. Carr’s climbing salamander (B. carri) is confined to a small area of south-central Honduras (Francisco Morazán department). The Suchitán climbing salamander (B. suchitanensis) is confined to the area of Suchitán Volcano in southeastern Guatemala (Jutiapa department). The Meliana climbing salamander (B. meliana) is confined to a small area of south-western Guatemala. The Celaque climbing salamander (B. celaque) is found patchily in western Honduras. The Trifinio climbing salamander (B. heiroreias) is known only from Cerro Montecristo and Cerro Miramundo in the Trifinio International Park of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, as well as from Quetzaltepeque Volcano in south-eastern Guatemala. Conant’s climbing salamander (B. conanti) is found patchily in south-eastern Guatemala and western Honduras.
The nimble long-limbed salamander (Nyctanolis pernix) is known only from four localities in south-eastern Mexico (Chiapas) and central Guatemala.
Two species of worm salamander (Oedipina) endemic to the Central American Highlands are threatened by habitat destruction. The Chimaltenango worm salamander (O. ignea) is confined to a few localities in southern Guatemala and western Honduras. The La Fortuna worm salamander (O. gephyra) is confined to a small area of north-western Honduras.
The Chiapan Highlands
The Chiapan Highlands are located in southern Mexico (eastern Oaxaca, southern Tabasco, and northern and eastern Chiapas), on the central part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
The Chiapan deer mouse (Peromyscus zarhynchus) is confined to central and southern Chiapas, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
Two shrews of the genus Sorex endemic to the Chiapan Highlands are threatened by habitat destruction. The San Cristóbal shrew (S. stizodon) and Sclater’s shrew (S. sclateri) are both known only from a few isolated localities in Chiapas.
The Chiapan small-eared shrew (Cryptotis griseoventris) is known only from a small area of Chiapas.
The Santa Rosa arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia ochoterenai) is known only from its original collection in the 1930s from Chiapas. The smoothback arboreal alligator lizard (A. leurolepis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1930s from an imprecise locality in Chiapas.
Hobart Smith’s anole (Anolis hobartsmithi) is known only from a single locality in north-western Chiapas.
Rowley’s palm pit viper (Bothreichis rowleyi) is found patchily in Oaxaca and northern Chiapas, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international pet trade.
MacDougall’s graceful brown snake (Rhadinaea macdougalli) is confined to a small area of eastern Oaxaca, where it is threatened by deforestation.
The Chiapan stripeless snake (Coniophanes alvarezi) is known only from a few specimens collected in a small area of west-central Chiapas.
The Chimalapas tree frog (Exerodonta chimalapa) is known only from two disjunct areas of the Chiapan Highlands (south-eastern Oaxaca and western Chiapas). The Chiapas tree frog (E. bivocata) is known only from a small area of northern Chiapas. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
Three rain frogs of the genus Craugastor endemic to the Chiapan Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. The Zanatepec rain frog (C. silvicola) is known only from two specimens collected in the 1960s from eastern Oaxaca. Taylor’s rain frog (C. taylori) is known only from a single locality in northern Chiapas. The San Cristobal de las Casas rain frog (C. glaucus) is known only from a few scattered localities in north-central Chiapas.
The Chamula brook frog (Duellmanohyla chamulae) is confined to a small area of north-western Chiapas.
Alvarez del Toro’s hidden salamander (Cryptotriton alvarezdeltoroi) is known only from a few specimens collected from two cloud forest localities in north-central Chiapas.
The jumping false brook salamander (Ixalotriton niger) is known from a small area of western Chiapas, where it favours fissured limestone crags.
The Meseta Central is located in northern Chiapas state.
The Meseta Central graceful brown snake (Rhadinella kanalchutchan) is confined to the western Meseta Central.
The thick-lipped spike-thumb tree frog (Plectrohyla pycnochila) is confined to the Meseta Central.
The Cuilco Mountains
The Cuilco Mountains (Montañas de Cuilco in Spanish) are located in western Guatemala (Huehuetenango department).
Rabb’s bromeliad salamander (Dendrotriton rabbi) is known only from two localities in the Cuilco Mountains, where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction.
The Cuchumatanes Range
The Cuchumatanes Range (Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes in Spanish) is located in western Guatemala (Huehuetenango and El Quiché departments). It is the highest non-volcanic mountain range in Central America, and also the most extensive highland region.
Frost’s arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia frosti) is confined to a single locality in Huehuetenango department.
Perkins’ tree frog (Exerodonta perkinsi) is known only from the Cuchumatanes Range.
The Tecun Uman spike-thumb tree frog (Plectrohyla tecunumani) is known only from two localities in the Cuchumatanes Range.
The phantom stream frog (Ptychohyla dendrophasma) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1998 in the north-western Cuchumatanes Range.
The Finca Chiblac salamander (Bradytriton silus) is known only from a small area on the eastern slopes of the Cuchumatanes Range.
Jackson’s climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa jacksoni) was long known only from two specimens collected in 1975 in the western Cuchumatanes Range. Feared extinct, it was unexpectedly rediscovered in 2017.
Three species of bromeliad salamander (Dendrotriton) endemic to the Cuchumatanes Range are threatened by loss of habitat. The Cuchumatanes bromeliad salamander (D. cuchumatanus) is known for certain only from a small patch of high-elevation oak forest in the Cuchumatanes Range. The Kekchi bromeliad salamander (D. kekchiorum) is known only from two localities (separated by some 40 km) in the Cuchumatanes Range. The Chuj bromeliad salamander (D. chujorum) is known only from three sites in the northern Cuchumatanes Range.
The Xucaneb Range
The Xucaneb Range (Sierra de Xucaneb in Spanish) is located in central Guatemala (Alta Verapaz department).
The Xucaneb arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia aurita) is confined to the highlands of the Xucaneb Range, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international pet trade.
The Xucaneb spike-thumb tree frog (Plectrohyla teuchestes) is confined to the Xucaneb Range.
The Volcán Finca rain frog (Craugastor myllomyllon) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1978 on Finca Volcano. Extensive surveys since have failed to locate the species, which is now thought to be extinct.
The Minas Range
The Minas Range (Sierra de las Minas in Spanish) is located in central-eastern Guatemala (Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, El Progreso, Zacapa, and Izabal departments). It features a range of habitats and is home to Central America’s most extensive cloud forests.
The Minas rain frog (Craugastor adamastus) is known only from the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, although it may occur more widely.
The Minas hidden salamander (Cryptotriton sierraminensis) is known only from the southern slopes of the Sierra de las Minas.
The Mico Range
The Mico Range (Sierra del Mico in Spanish) is located in eastern Guatemala (Izabal department). It runs for approximately 60 km before dropping into the Caribbean Sea.
Campbell’s rain frog (Craugastor campbelli) is known only from the Mico Range.
Stuart’s moss salamander (Nototriton stuarti) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Manantiales Reserve.
The Santa Cruz Range
The Santa Cruz Range (Sierra de Santa Cruz in Spanish) is located in eastern Guatemala (Izabal department).
The Santa Cruz rain frog (Craugastor trachydermus) is confined to the Santa Cruz Range. Last recorded in 1989, it may be extinct owing to a combination of chytridiomycosis and habitat destruction.
The Merendón Range
The Merendón Range (Sierra del Merendón in Spanish) extends along the south-eastern border of Guatemala (Zacapa and Izabal departments) and north-western Honduras (Cortés and Santa Bárbara departments).
The Merendón snail-eating snake (Sibon merendonensis) is known only from a small area of cloud forest on La Montaña de las Granadillas, within the Merendón Range of eastern Guatemala.
Miles’ rain frog (Craugastor milesi) and the coffee rain frog (C. coffeus) are both confined to the Merendón Range, where they are threatened by loss of habitat and possibly chytrid infection.
The Cortés hidden salamander (Cryptotriton nasalis) is confined to two disjunct localities within the Omoa Range of north-western Honduras and the Caral Range of south-eastern Guatemala.
Brodie’s moss salamander (Nototriton brodiei) is confined to two disjunct localities within the Omoa Range of northwestern Honduras and the Caral Range of southeastern Guatemala.
The Omoa Range (Sierra de Omoa in Spanish) is located in north-western Honduras (Cortés and Santa Bárbara departments).
The Omoa anole (Anolis amplisquamosus) and the Cusuco anole (A. cusuco) are both endemic to the Omoa Range, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.
The Omoa graceful brown snake (Rhadinella pegosalyta) is confined to Cusuco National Park.
The Omoa slug snake (Omoadiphas aurula) is confined to Cusuco National Park.
The Cusuco earth snake (Geophis nephodrymus) is confined to Cusuco National Park.
The Omoa spike-thumb tree frog (Plectrohyla dasypus) and the exquisite spike-thumb tree frog (P. exquisita) are both confined to Cusuco National Park, where they have undergone dramatic declines due to loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis.
The Omoa rain frog (Craugastor omoaensis) was historically known only from a small area of the Omoa Range in Cortés department. Last recorded in 1974 despite repeated searches, it is thought to have been driven extinct by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis. The San Pedro rain frog (C. merendonensis) is known only from the Omoa Range. Much of its population began to disappear in the 1990s, perhaps owing to chytridiomycosis.
The Cusuco climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa diaphora) is confined to the Omoa Range.
Tomas’ worm salamander (Oedipina tomasi) is known only from a few specimens collected within Cusuco National Park.
The Caral Range (Sierra de Caral in Spanish) is located in south-eastern Guatemala (Izabal department) and northwestern Honduras (Santa Bárbara department).
The Caral rain frog (Craugastor nefrens) is confined to a narrow altitudinal band in the Caral Range.
The Sulaco Range
The Sulaco Range (Sierra de Sulaco in Spanish) is located in north-western Honduras (Yoro department).
The Yoro moss salamander (Nototriton barbouri) is confined to the Sulaco Range.
The Celaque Mountains
The Celaque Mountains (Montaña de Celaque) are located in western Honduras (Lempira and Ocotepeque departments).
The Corquin rain frog (Craugastor anciano) was historically known only from the Celaque Mountains, where it was last recorded in 1990. It is now considered to be extinct due to loss of habitat and possibly chytridiomycosis.
The Nombre de Dios Range
The Nombre de Dios Range (Sierra Nombre de Dios in Spanish) is located on the Caribbean coast of north-central Honduras (Yoro and Atlántida departments).
The Honduran giant anole (Anolis loveridgei) was long known only from a few specimens collected in 1936 in northern Honduras (Yoro department), where the original forest no longer remains. It has since been rediscovered at two localities about 50 km apart in the Nombre de Dios Range.
The Texíguat slug snake (Omoadiphas texiguatensis) is known only from a single specimen collected within the Cerro Texíguat Wildlife Refuge. As the refuge is located on an isolated mountain, the extent of this species’ distribution is likely confined there.
The Rio Viejo beaked toad (Rhinella chrysophora) is known only from two widely separated localities within the Nombre de Dios Range, where it was nevertheless at one time considered to be abundant. The species suffered a sudden and massive population decline in the 1990s, most likely due to chytridiomycosis, from which it never recovered. Last recorded in 1996, it is most likely extinct.
The Nombre de Dios tree frog (Isthmohyla insolita) is confined in the extreme west of the Nombre de Dios Range, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The Ceiba stream frog (Ptychohyla spinipollex) is a semi-aquatic species found patchily within the Nombre de Dios Range, where it is extremely sensitive to habitat disturbance.
Several rain frogs of the genus Craugastor endemic to the Nombre de Dios Range are seriously threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis. McCranie’s rain frog (C. chrysozetetes) was historically known along a single stream, the Quebrada de Oro, in Atlántida department. Declared extinct in 2004, it may still survive in small numbers within Pico Bonito National Park. Cruz’s rain frog (C. cruzi) is known only from Cerro Búfalo, where it appears to have been extirpated. Possibly extinct, like the previous species it too may survive within Pico Bonito National Park. The fecund rain frog (C. fecundus) was historically known from two widely separated localities within the Nombre de Dios Range, where it has not been recorded since 1989. Possibly extinct, it may survive in Pico Bonito and/or Capiro y Calentura national parks. The forest-keeper rain frog (C. saltuarius) was historically known from two areas in the western and central Nombre de Dios Range, where it appears to have been extirpated. It may survive in more remote areas.
The Agalta Range
The Agalta Range (Sierra de Agalta in Spanish) is located in east-central Honduras (Olancho department). It is protected by Sierra de Agalta National Park.
The Agalta slug snake (Omoadiphas cannula) is known only from two specimens collected in 1989 from the Agalta Range. It has not been found since despite survey efforts, and the small coffee plantation where it was first discovered has since been converted to pasture.
The Agalta climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa longissimi) is known only from the Agalta Range.
Cerro El Pital
Cerro El Pital is located in north-western El Salvador and western Honduras. It was declared a biological reserve in 1987, although only on the Honduran side of the border.
The El Pital climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa synoria) is confined to El Pital’s cloud forests, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Cerro Miramundo
Cerro Miramundo is located in the highlands of south-eastern Guatemala (Jalapa department).
The Miramundo arboreal alligator lizard (Abronia meledona) is known only from the top of Mount Miramundo.
The Jalpa false brook salamander (Pseudoeurycea exspectata) is known only from Mount Miramundo, where it was last observed in 1976. Most likely extinct, it may still occur on other nearby isolated peaks.
Mombacho Volcano
Mombacho Volcano (Volcán Mombacho in Spanish) is a dormant, isolated stratovolcano located in south-western Nicaragua (Granada department). It is protected within the Mombacho Volcano Nature Reserve.
The Mombacho climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa mombachoensis) is known for certain only from Mombacho Volcano, but may occur on other nearby volcanoes.
The Isthmian Highlands
The Isthmian Highlands is the name given for the chain of mountains extending from south-eastern Nicaragua to west-central Panama. The moist montane forests of this region are among the most intact habitats in Central America. Steep slopes, remoteness, and relatively cool temperatures have limited the impact of agriculture and human development, and much has been protected by national and transboundary parks.
Bang’s mountain squirrel (Syntheosciurus brochus) is a poorly known species confined to a few localities within the Isthmian Highlands.
The red-fronted parrotlet (Touit costaricensis) is a rare species from Costa Rica and western Panama, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The southern resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno costaricensis) is confined to the cloud forests of Costa Rica and western Panama, where it is fairly well protected.
The glow-throated hummingbird (Selasphorus ardens) is found patchily in the highlands of west-central Panama and on the Azuero Peninsula, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Savage’s earth snake (Geophis downsi) is known only from a single locality in south-western Costa Rica (Puntarenas province).
Taylor’s stubfoot toad (Atelopus senex) historically occurred in north-central Costa Rica, where it underwent significant declines due to chytridiomycosis. Last seen in 1986 despite extensive searches, it is now thought to be extinct.
Taylor’s fringe-limbed tree frog (Ecnomiohyla fimbrimembra) is found sporadically within the Isthmian Highlands of Costa Rica and western Panama.
Several tree frogs of the genus Isthmohyla are endemic to the Isthmian Highlands, where they are seriously threatened by habitat destruction, pollution, and chytridiomycosis. The debilitated tree frog (I. debilis) was similarly widespread in Costa Rica and western Panama and also underwent a catastrophic decline during the late twentieth century. It was last observed in Panama in 1998, and is now extremely rare or possibly extinct in Costa Rica as well. The brook tree frog (I. rivularis) was historically widespread in Costa Rica and western Panama, but underwent a catastrophic decline during the late twentieth century. It was thought to be extinct until a single specimen was discovered in the Monteverde Cloud Forest in 2007, and since then there have been further records. The Continental Divide tree frog (I. graceae) historically occurred on many of the higher peaks of western Panama, but has now been reduced to a single known population. Cope’s tree frog (I. pictipes) occurs sporadically within the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Talamanca of central Costa Rica. Starrett’s tree frog (I. tica) and the narrow-lined tree frog (I. angustilineata) both historically occurred althroughout the Tilaran, Central, and Talamanca cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama, but are now extremely rare and perhaps nearing extinction.
The blue-sided leaf frog (Agalychnis annae) is found sporadically in the Isthmian Highlands of Costa Rica and western Panama, where it is threatened mainly by overcollection for the international pet trade.
The green-eyed leopard frog (Lithobates vibicarius) was historically widespread in the Isthmian Highlands, but has undergone significant declines due to chytridiomycosis, habitat destruction, and pollution. It is now known only from a few scattered localities in north-central Costa Rica.
The red-eyed brook frog (Duellmanohyla uranochroa) is found patchily in the montane forests of Costa Rica and western Panama, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and chytridiomycosis.
Several rain frogs of the genus Craugastor endemic to the Isthmian Highlands are seriously threatened (and possibly extinct) due to loss of habitat, climate change, and possibly chytridiomycosis. Fleischmann’s rain frog (C. fleischmanni) was historically found throughout the highlands of Costa Rica, but declined drastically during the late twentieth century. After extensive searches between 1987 and 2009 a single specimen was discovered in 2010 from the headwaters of the Ciruelas River. There have been no further records since, and the species may be extinct. The Atlantic rain frog (C. andi) was historically known from the northern and central portions of the Costa Rican cordilleras, where it was last recorded in 1990. It too is possibly extinct. The angel rain frog (C. angelicus) was historically known from the Tilarán and Guanacaste cordilleras of Costa Rica and from Poás Volcano in the Cordillera Central. It has lost most (or perhaps all) of its population. The obese rain frog (C. obesus) was historically known from southeastern Costa Rica and north-western Panama. It was last recorded in Costa Rica in 1984, and more recent surveys have failed to detect it in Panama either. Peters’ rain frog (C. punctariolus) is confined to central and western Panama. The Tabasará rain frog (C. tabasarae) is found patchily in central and western Panama.
The musical robber frog (Pristimantis museosus) is confined to the mountains of central and western Panama.
Three species of climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa) endemic to the Isthmian Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. The Moravia de Chirripo climbing salamander (B. alvaradoi) is confined to the Atlantic slopes of Costa Rica. The La Palma climbing salamander (B. subpalmata) is found sporadically in north-central Costa Rica. The Tico climbing salamander (B. tica) is known from the Talamanca Cordillera and the Cerros de Escazú in central Costa Rica.
The quarry worm salamander (Oedipina poelzi) is found in a few scattered areas of lower montane forest in the Tilerán, Central, and Talamanca cordilleras.
Taylor’s burrowing caecilian (Dermophis costaricense) is a little-known subterranean species from the mountains of north-central Costa Rica.
The Guanacaste Cordillera
The Guanacaste Cordillera (Cordillera de Guanacaste in Spanish) is located in north-western Costa Rica (Guanacaste and Alajuela provinces). It extends for 110 km north-west to south-east and mostly contains complex stratovolcanoes.
The Guanacaste toad (Incilius guanacaste) is known only from the Miravalles and Rincón de la Vieja volcanoes in the Guanacaste Cordillera.
The Guanacaste moss salamander (Nototriton guanacaste) is known only from Orosí and Cacao volcanoes.
The Tilarán Cordillera
The Tilarán Cordillera (Cordillera de Tilarán in Spanish) is located in north-western Costa Rica (Puntarenas, Guanacaste, and Alajuela provinces).
The golden toad (Incilius periglenes) was never widespread, but used to be abundant in a handful of areas of cloud-shrouded tropical forest above the Costa Rican town of Monteverde. Not seen since 1989, it is thought to have been one of the first species to become extinct as a direct result of climate change.
The Puntarenas rain frog (Craugastor cuaquero) is known only from its type locality at Monteverde (Puntarenas province).
The Monteverde moss salamander (Nototriton gamezi) is known only from a small area centred on the Monterverde Biological Reserve (Alajuela province).
The Cordillera Central
The Cordillera Central is a volcanic mountain range in northcentral Costa Rica (Alajuela, Meredia, Cartago, and San José provinces). It contains four large volcanoes (Poás, Barva, Irazú, and Turrialba).
The Chompipe toad (Incilius chompipe) is confined to a few localities in the Cordillera Central.
The Heredia rain frog (Craugastor escoces) was originally known from the volcanoes Barva, Irazú, and Turrialba of the Cordillera Central, at elevations of 1100–2100 m. It was last seen in 1986 and thought to be extinct up until 2016, when a single specimen was reportedly found near Juan Castro Blanco National Park in Alajuela province. If the species does indeed still survive it is likely to be very rare.
The black-headed climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa nigrescens) is confined to a small area of Cartago province.
Two species of worm salamander (Oedipina) are endemic to the Cordillera Central, where they are threatened by habitat destruction. The El Empalme worm salamander (O. paucidentata) is known only from a single locality in San José and Cartago provinces. The San José worm salamander (O. altura) is known from two localities in San José province.
Barva Volcano (Volcán Barva in Spanish) is a stratovolcano complex 22 km north of San José in Heredia province. On the eastern side of the mountain is a lake in what was the volcanic crater, called ‘Laguna de Barva’.
Holdridge’s toad (Incilius holdridgei) is confined to Barva Volcano at 2000–2200 m. Not seen after 1987, it was feared extinct until its rediscovery in 2007. The total population is thought to number fewer than 50 adults.
The South Fork tree frog (Isthmohyla xanthosticta) is known only from its type locality, the south fork of the Río Las Vueltas on the south slope of Barva Volcano at 2100 m.
The Talamanca Cordillera
The Talamanca Cordillera (Cordillera de Talamanca in Spanish) is located in central and south-western Costa Rica (San José, Cartago, Limón, and Puntarenas provinces) and far western Panama (Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí provinces). Much of it lies within La Amistad International Park, which is shared by the two countries.
Dice’s cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus dicei) is confined to the Talamanca Cordillera, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and predation by invasive coyotes.
Two shrews of the genus Cryptotis endemic to the Talamanca Cordillera are threatened by loss of habitat and pesticides. Enders’ small-eared shrew (C. endersi) is known only from a few localities in far western Panama. The Talamanca small-eared shrew (C. gracilis) is confined to the Talamanca Cordillera.
The Talamanca galliwasp (Celestus orobius) is a type of lizard known from two widely separated localities in central and south-western Costa Rica (San José and Puntarenas provinces).
The Fortuna anole (Anolis fortunensis) is confined to the Fortuna Forest Reserve in western Panama (Chiriquí province).
Dunn’s water snake (Hydromorphus dunni) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1942 from western Panama (Chiriquí province). It is unlikely to be rediscovered at this locality as it has been heavily transformed, and the species may be extinct.
Myers’ glasstail snake (Urotheca myersi) is known only from three widely separated localities in central and southwestern Costa Rica (San José and Puntarenas provinces).
Two species of earth snake (Geophis) endemic to the Talamanca Cordillera are threatened by loss of habitat. Champion’s earth snake (G. championi) is known from Barú Volcano and one other locality in western Panama (Chiriquí province). The Talamanca earth snake (G. talamancae) is confined to a small area of southern Costa Rica (Puntarenas province) and western Panama (Chiriquí province).
The La Fortuna snail-eating snake (Sibon perissostichon) is known only from a single specimen collected in the La Fortuna Forest Reserve in western Panama (Chiriquí province).
Two toads of the genus Incilius endemic to the Talamanca Cordillera are threatened by loss of habitat and perhaps chytridiomycosis. The Pico Blanco toad (I. fastidiosus) occurs on both slopes of the southern Talamanca Cordillera of Costa Rica and the Atlantic slope of immediately adjacent Panama. Formerly abundant, it underwent a drastic decline in the 1980s. The Almirante Trail toad (I. peripatetes) is known only from two widely separated localities in the Talamanca Cordillera of Panama (La Amistad International Park and Cerro Bollo).
Two tree frogs of the genus Isthmohyla endemic to the Talamanca Cordillera are threatened by loss of habitat and perhaps chytridiomycosis. The Río Changena tree frog (I. infucata) is known only from a single locality in northwestern Panama (Bocas del Toro province). Lips’ tree frog (I. calypsa) is confined to the southern Talamanca Cordillera on Cerro Pando in eastern Costa Rica and in western Panama.
Several rain frogs of the genus Craugastor endemic to the Talamanca Cordillera are threatened by loss of habitat and, possibly, chytridiomycosis. The Río Changena rain frog (C. jota) is known only from a single locality in western Panama (Bocas del Toro province). Dunn’s rain frog (C. monnichorum) is known only from a small area of western Panama (Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí provinces). The Sabana rain frog (C. rayo) is known only from two widely separated localities in central and southern Costa Rica. The torrent rain frog (C. rhyacobatrachus) was historically known from southern Costa Rica (where it is now believed to have been extirpated) and far western Panama. The ghost rain frog (C. phasma) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1992 from the Las Tablas protected area in southern Costa Rica (Puntarenas province). The Rio Claro rain frog (C. emcelae) is known only from western Panama. The Rio Cotón rain frog (C. catalinae) and the gluttonous rain frog (C. gulosus) are both confined to an area of southern Costa Rica and western Panama.
The Valle del Silencio dink frog (Diasporus ventrimaculatus) is known only from the Valle del Silencio in southern Costa Rica (Limón province).
Legler’s stream frog (Ptychohyla legleri) is known only from two small areas in southern Costa Rica (San José and Puntarenas provinces) and western Panama (Chiriquí province).
An astonishing array of climbing salamanders (Bolitoglossa) are confined to small areas of the Talamanca Cordillera, where they are threatened mainly by habitat destruction. Sooyors’ climbing salamander (B. sooyorum) is known from a few localities in south-central Costa Rica. Robinson’s climbing salamander (B. diminuta) is confined to a single locality in central Costa Rica (Cartago province). The gracile climbing salamander (B. gracilis) is confined to a small area of central Costa Rica (Cartago province). The Quebrada Valverde climbing salamander (B. obscura) is confined to a single locality in central Costa Rica (Cartago province). The Tapantí climbing salamander (B. epimela) is confined to two localities in central Costa Rica (Cartago province). The compact climbing salamander (B. compacta) is confined to a small area on the Costa Rica/Panama border. Known localities include Cerro Pando, Mount Totumas, and Barú Volcano. Gomez’s climbing salamander (B. gomezi) is confined to a small area of south-western Costa Rica (Puntarenas province) and extreme western Panama (Chiriquí province). The crater climbing salamander (B. marmorea) is confined to a small area of south-western Costa Rica (Puntarenas province) and extreme western Panama (Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí provinces). The coal black climbing salamander (B. anthracina) is confined to a small area of western Panama (Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí provinces). The shadowy climbing salamander (B. sombra) is confined to a small area of south-western Costa Rica (Puntarenas province) and possibly adjacent western Panama (Chiriquí province). The magnificent climbing salamander (B. magnifica) is confined to a small area of western Panama (Chiriquí province). Brame’s climbing salamander (B. bramei) is known from south-western Costa Rica (Puntarenas province) and western Panama (Chiriquí province). The dwarf climbing salamander (B. minutula) is confined to south-western Costa Rica (Limón and Puntarenas provinces) and western Panama (Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí provinces). The red-footed climbing salamander (B. pesrubra) occurs in central Costa Rica (San José, Cartago, Limón, and Puntarenas provinces), where it may represent more than one species.
Two species of moss salamander (Nototriton) are confined to the northern end of the Talamanca Cordillera, where they are threatened by loss of habitat. The Tapantí moss salamander (N. tapanti) is known only from the Orosi River valley in central Costa Rica (central Cartago province). The Plantanillo Gorge moss salamander (N. major) is similarly known only from a single locality in central Costa Rica near Moravia de Chirripó (eastern Cartago province).
The Cerro Pando worm salamander (Oedipina grandis) and Savage’s worm salamander (O. savagei) are both confined to small areas on the Costa Rica/Panama border, where they are threatened by habitat destruction.
Cerro Chirripó is the highest mountain in Costa Rica. It is located within Chirripó National Park (south-western Limón province).
The Chirripó stubfoot toad (Atelopus chirripoensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1980 from a temporary pond in montane grassland, about four kilometres north of Mount Chirripó.
The Tabasará Cordillera
The Tabasará Cordillera (Cordillera de Tabasará in Spanish) is located in west-central Panama (Chiriquí, Coclé, Veraguas, and Panamá Oeste provinces).
The yellow-green sparrow (Pselliophorus luteoviridis) is confined to the Tabasará Cordillera.
The golden stubfoot toad (Atelopus zeteki) is confined to a small area of Coclé and Panamá Oest provinces.
Two species of gliding tree frog (Ecnomiohyla) have been decimated by chytridiomycosis. Rabbs’ fringe-limbed tree frog (E. rabborum) is known only from the mountains in the immediate vicinity of the town of El Valle de Antón (Coclé and Panamá Oest provinces). Already rare at the time of its discovery in 2005, the following year a captive breeding effort was attempted that ultimately proved unsuccessful. The species was declared extinct in 2016. The Veraguas fringe-limbed tree frog (E. veraguensis) is confined to Veraguas and Coclé provinces.
The Cerro Peña Blanca climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa copia) is known only from a single specimen collected from Cerro Peña Blanca (Coclé province).
The San Blas Cordillera
The San Blas Range (Cordillera de San Blas in Spanish) is located on the Caribbean coast of central Panama (Panamá, Colón, and Guna Yala provinces).
The Altos de Pacora earth snake (Geophis bellus) is known only from a single specimen collected in the midtwentieth century.
The Chagras Highlands rocket frog (Ectopoglossus isthminus) is confined to the Chagras Highlands, where it is seriously threatened by chytridiomycosis. The Cerro Brewster rocket frog (E. astralogaster) is known only from Cerro Brewster in Guna Yala province.
The Piedras-Pacora Range
The Piedras-Pacora Range (Serranía Piedras-Pacora in Spanish) is located in Panamá province.
The Tabasará ground snake (Atractus imperfectus) is known only from a single specimen collected during the early twentieth century from the Piedras-Pacora Range in Panamá province.
Mount Azul (Cerro Azul in Spanish; also known as Cerro Jefe) is located in Panamá province, on the edge of Chagras National Park.
The Azul ground snake (Atractus depressiocellus) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Azul.
The Darién Range
The Darién Range (Serranía del Darién in Spanish) is a small mountain range located in eastern Panama (Guna Yala and Darién provinces, as well as the Embará Indigenous Region) and north-western Colombia (Chocó department), in the still densely forested region known as the Darién Gap. It lies within two major protected areas (Darién National Park in Panama and Los Katíos National Park in Colombia).
The Darién beaked toad (Rhinella acrolopha) is confined to the Darién Range.
The Cerro Cituro climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa taylori) is confined to the Darién Range.
The Tacarcuna Ridge
The Tacaruna Ridge is located on the Panama/Colombia border. It includes Mount Taracuna (Cerro Tacarcuna in Spanish), the highest peak in the Darién Range.
The Tacarcuna wood quail (Odontophorus dialeucos) is known only from Mount Tacarcuna and Mount Malí.
The Tacarcuna tapaculo (Scytalopus panamensis) is a type of passerine bird known only from Mount Tacarcuna and Mount Malí, where it is nevertheless relatively common.
The Malí fringe-limbed tree frog (Ecnomiohyla thysanota) is known only from Mount Malí.
The Taracuna robber frog (Strabomantis laticorpus) is known only from Mount Tacarcuna and Mount Malí.
The Pirre Range
The Pirre Range (Serranía del Pirre in Spanish) is located in eastern Panama (south-central Darién province).
The Pirre galliwasp (Diploglossus montisilvestris) is a type of lizard confined to the Pirre Range.
The Pirre blunt-headed vine snake (Imantodes phantasma) is confined to the Pirre Range.
The Pirre ground snake (Atractus darienensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1966.
The Pirre stubfoot toad (Atelopus glyphus) is confined to the Pirre Range.
The Truando rocket frog (Colostethus latinasus) is confined to the Pirre Range.
The Pirre robber frog (Pristimantis pirrensis) is known only from a single locality in the Pirre Range.
The Baudó Range
The Baudó Range (Serranía del Baudó in Spanish; known as the Serranía del Sapo in Panama) is a coastal mountain range located mainly on the Pacific coast of north-western Colombia (Chocó department), but extending into eastern Panama (southern Darién province).
The Cerro Sapo stubfoot toad (Atelopus certus) is confined to the Baudó Range.
Alto del Buey
The Alto del Buey is located in coastal west-central Colombia (Chocó department).
The Alto del Buey poison dart frog (Andinobates altobueyensis) is known only from the pre-montane forests of the Alto del Buey, where it has not been seen since the 1970s.
Lowland Rainforests
Areas of lowland rainforest historically extended throughout the Mesoamerican Region from south-eastern Mexico to western Ecuador. The vast majority has already been lost due to urbanization, agricultural expansion, and cattle ranching and only fragments remain, primarily within protected areas.
The plumbeous hawk (Cryptoleucopteryx plumbea) occurs relatively widely from eastern Panama through western Colombia to north-western Ecuador, but is everywhere rare and declining due to loss of habitat.
Dunn’s spinytail iguana (Morunasaurus groi) is known only from two localities in central Panama, and also occurs very disjunctly in a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Surveys of the intervening region in eastern Panama have failed to record the species, and it is thought to be genuinely absent from there.
The granular poison dart frog (Oophaga granulifera) is found patchily in south-western Costa Rica, adjacent southwestern Panama, and possibly in a small area of eastern Costa Rica as well. It is threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international pet trade.
Northern Mesoamerican Lowland Rainforests
The northern Mesoamerican lowland rainforests extend from the coastal plain of central-eastern Mexico between the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Gulf of Mexico, south and east through the Yucatán Peninsula as far as northern Guatemala (Petén department) and northern Belize.
The northern mantled howler (Alouatta palliata mexicana) is a type of monkey confined to the lowland forests of southern Mexico (Veracruz, Tabasco, Chiapas, and Oaxaca) and possibly north-central Guatemala.
The Tumbalá climbing rat (Tylomys tumbalensis) is known only from a single locality in southern Mexico (northern Chiapas). Last collected in 1970, all of its original forest habitat has since been destroyed and the species is most likely extinct.
The Mexican agouti (Dasyprocta mexicana) is a type of rodent native to southern Mexico (Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco and Chiapas), from where it has been introduced into western and eastern Cuba. It has been heavily impacted by loss of habitat as well as by hunting and trapping.
Nava’s wren (Hylorchilus navai) is confined to limestone outcrops with a small area of lowland rainforest in southern Mexico (eastern Oaxaca and western Chiapas). It is threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.
Three species of anole (Anolis) are threatened by loss of habitat. The El Ocote anole (A. microlepis) is known only from two specimens collected in the 1950s from an undefined locality in southern Mexico (Oaxaca). The Chiapas pygmy anole (A. pygmaeus) is confined to southern Mexico (western Chiapas and north-eastern Oaxaca). Barker’s anole (A. barkeri) is confined to lower montane forests in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and Tuxtlas Range of southern Mexico (Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas).
Lipetz’s tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma lipetzi) and the Sumidero tropical night lizard (L. chicoasensis) are each known only from a single locality in southern Mexico (western Chiapas).
The Veracruz graceful brown snake (Rhadinaea cuneata) is known only from a single specimen collected in southern Mexico (central Veracruz).
Briggs’ centipede snake (Tantilla briggsi) is known only from two localities in southern Mexico (western Oaxaca and southern Veracruz), where it is threatened by deforestation and pesticides. The Petén centipede snake (T. hendersoni) is known only from a single locality in central Belize.
The Tehuantepec hook-nosed snake (Ficimia variegata) is confined to a small area of lowland rainforest in southern Mexico on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Veracruz and Oaxaca).
The leprous rain frog (Eleutherodactylus leprus) is found widely but very sporadically in isolated pockets of southern Mexico, northern Guatemala, and southern Belize.
Alfred’s rain frog (Craugastor alfredi) is found over a relatively wide area of southern Mexico and northern Guatemala, but is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat.
Taylor’s climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa veracrucis) is known only from a few localities in southern Mexico (southern Veracruz and north-eastern Oaxaca).
The admirable false brook salamander (Aquiloeurycea praecellens) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1940 near the city of Córdoba in eastern Mexico (westcentral Veracruz). It is unlikely that any suitable habitat remains, and the species is most likely extinct.
Yucatán Rainforest
The Yucatán Rainforest is located on the Yucatán Peninsula of south-eastern Mexico (Yucatán, Campeche, and Quintana Roo), northern Guatemala (Petén department), and northern Belize. Although some protection is in place, the region is under threat due to loss of habitat.
The Yucatán brown brocket (Mazama pandora) is a type of small deer confined to the Yucatán Peninsula, where it is potentially threatened by hunting and trapping.
The Yucatán mastiff bat (Molossus alvarezi) is known only from the northern and eastern Yucatán Peninsula.
The Yucatán box turtle (Terrapene carolina yucatana) is confined to south-eastern Mexico (Yucatán, Campeche, and Quintana Roo) and possibly northern Belize.
Caribbean Lowland Rainforests
The Caribbean or Isthmian–Atlantic lowland rainforests are located along the coasts of northern Honduras, eastern Nicaragua, eastern Costa Rica, and western and central Panama.
The Isthmian–Atlantic galliwasp (Celestus adercus) is a type of lizard known only from two specimens collected in west-central Panama (Coclé and Colón provinces).
The Rio Guabo skink (Sphenomorphus rarus) is known only from two specimens collected from two widely separated localities in western Panama.
Viquez’s tropical ground snake (Trimetopon viquezi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1927 from north-eastern Costa Rica (Limón province). The area where it was found has since been deforested, and the species is most likely extinct. Barbour’s tropical ground snake (T. barbouri) is known only from three localities in central Panama (Panamá Oeste and Panamá provinces).
Lamar’s snail-eating snake (Sibon lamari) is known only from a few localities in southern Costa Rica (Limón province) and north-western Panama (Bocas del Toro and Colón provinces).
The Limosa stubfoot toad (Atelopus limosus) is known only from a few localities in central coastal Panama, where it is threatened by chytridiomycosis and loss of habitat.
Claudia’s poison dart frog (Andinobates claudiae) is confined to a small area of coastal western Panama (Bocas del Toro province).
Pechor’s rain frog (Craugastor pechorum) is confined to a small area of north-eastern Honduras (Olancho, Colón, and Gracias a Dios departments). The Chingo Petaca rain frog (C. chingopetaca) is confined to a small area of south-eastern Nicaragua (Río San Juan department).
The Rio Larí dink frog (Diasporus tigrillo) is known only from two localities within the Rio Larí Valley of eastern Costa Rica (Limón province).
Savage’s brook frog (Duellmanohyla lythrodes) is confined to a small area of southern Costa Rica and north-western Panama, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and possibly chytridiomycosis.
The Rio Indio climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa indio) is confined to a small area of south-eastern Nicaragua (Rio San Juan department).
Three species of worm salamander (Oedipina) are endemic to the Caribbean lowland rainforests, where they are threatened by loss of habitat. The Los Diamantes worm salamander (O. carablanca) is known only from a few small, isolated areas of north-western Costa Rica (Limón province). The slender worm salamander (O. gracilis) and Alfaro’s worm salamander (O. alfaroi) are both confined to Costa Rica and north-western Panama.
Isthmian–Pacific Lowland Rainforests
The Isthmian–Pacific lowland rainforests are located along the coasts of southern Honduras, Nicaragua, eastern and southern Costa Rica, and western and south-central Panama.
Two subspecies of Central American squirrel monkey (Saimiri oerstedii) occur in Pacific coastal forest fragments. The grey-crowned Central American squirrel monkey (S. o. citrinellus) is confined to an area of the central coast of Costa Rica, with the black-crowned Central American squirrel monkey (S. o. oerstedii) replacing it to the south and extending into western Panama. Both are threatened by habitat destruction.
Kalko’s round-eared bat (Lophostoma kalkoae) is known only from a single colony recorded from Soberanía National Park in central Panama (Panamá Oeste province).
The black-cheeked ant-tanager (Habia atrimaxillaris) is known only from the Osa Peninsula and the area around the Golfo Dulce in of south-eastern Costa Rica. The species has suffered significant declines outside of protected areas due to deforestation, but populations remain relatively stable within Corcovado National Park and the Golfito Faunal Refuge.
The Isthmian alligator lizard (Coloptychon rhombifer) is a rare species found patchily in southern Costa Rica and western Panama.
The Golfo Dulce poison dart frog (Phyllobates vittatus) is known only from a small area of south-western Costa Rica.
The Golfito rain frog (Craugastor taurus) is confined to an area of humid lowland forest in Costa Rica and Panama. Formerly abundant, it has only been reported once this century.
The airstrip caecilian (Oscaecilia osae) is known only from the Osa Peninsula of south-eastern Costa Rica.
Southern Mesoamerican Lowland Rainforests
The southern Mesoamerican lowland rainforests extend from central-eastern Panama and along the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Colombia and Ecuador. They are bounded to the east by the Andes. At one time containing considerable tracts of forests with high biodiversity, most of the original habitat has now been destroyed.
Gray’s climbing rat (Tylomys panamensis) and the fulvous- bellied climbing rat (T. fulviventer) are both known only from old historical records originating from south-eastern Panama (Darién province).
The painted bristly mouse (Neacomys pictus) is known only from its original collection during the early twentieth century from eastern Panama (Darién province).
The Pacific coast long-tongued bat (Lonchophylla chocoana) is known only from four localities in north-western Ecuador and south-western Colombia.
The La Perla yellow-shouldered bat (Sturnira perla) is known only from a small area of north-western Ecuador, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Giovanni’s big-eared bat (Micronycteris giovanniae) is known only from a single specimen collected in north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas province).
The greater long-tailed bat (Choeroniscus periosus) is confined to south-western Colombia and north-western Ecuador.
The five-coloured barbet (Capito quinticolor) is found in south-western Colombia (Chocó, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, and Nariño departments) and north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas province). It is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Baudó oropendola (Psarocolius cassini) is a rare passerine bird known only from a few localities in north-western Colombia (Chocó department).
The scarlet-breasted dacnis (Dacnis berlepschi) is a type of tanager confined to the lowlands and lower foothills of southwestern Colombia (Nariño department) and north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, and Pichincha provinces). It is threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.
The Esmeraldas woodstar (Chaetocercus berlepschi), one of the smallest of the hummingbirds and indeed of all birds, is known only from a few isolated forest patches in western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Manabí, Santa Elena, and Guayas provinces).
Cope’s bachia (Bachia pallidiceps) is a type of lizard known only from a few localities in eastern Panama (Darién province) and western Colombia (Chocó department).
Noble’s scaly eyed dwarf gecko (Lepidoblepharis microlepis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1923 from north-western Colombia (Antioquia department).
Blomber’s tree boa (Corallus blombergi) is currently known only from a small area of north-western Ecuador and possibly south-western Colombia. The species formerly also occurred in three isolated localities further south in central Ecuador, but has been extirpated from at least two of these due to the complete loss of habitat.
Camilla’s coral snake (Micrurus camilae) is known only from a few specimens collected in north-western Colombia (Córdoba and Antioquia departments).
The Pinchinda snake (Emmochliophis fugleri) is known only from a single specimen collected in north-western Ecuador (Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas province). Its habitat has since largely been lost, and the species may be extinct.
The black centipede snake (Tantilla nigra) is known only from two specimens collected in western Colombia (Chocó department).
The Morti Hydro ground snake (Atractus hostilitractus) is known only from a single specimen collected in eastern Panama (Darién province). Boulenger’s ground snake (A. boulengerii) and the Nariño ground snake (A. echidna) are each known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia.
The Rio Pescado stubfoot toad (Atelopus balios) is known only from a few localities in south-western Ecuador (Azuay, Cañar and Guayas provinces). The elegant stubfoot toad (A. elegans) is confined to a small area of north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha, Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, and Cotopaxi provinces) and on Gorgona Island off the coast of south-western Colombia. The Condoto stubfoot toad (A. spurrelli) is confined to coastal western Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments). All are threatened by habitat destruction and possibly chytridiomycosis.
The Pacific lowlands yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus gryllatus) is known only from a very small area of northwestern Ecuador (Menabí, Los Ríos, and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces).
The Pacific marsupial frog (Gastrotheca angustifrons) occurs in a few disjunct areas of north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas province) and western Colombia (Cauca, Valle del Cauca, and Chocó departments).
The littoral Cochran frog (Cochranella litoralis) is known only from a few localities in south-western Colombia and north-western Ecuador, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The La Brea poison dart frog (Oophaga occultator) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Cauca department).
Espinosa’s poison dart frog (Epipedobates espinosai) is known only from its original collection in the 1950s in north-western Ecuador (Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces). The Nariño poison dart frog (E. narinensis) is known only from a small area of south-western Colombia (Nariño and Cauca departments). It is potentally threatened by pollution due to the fumigation of illegal crops.
The golden poison dart frog (Phyllobates terribilis) is known only from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Cauca and Valle del Cauca departments).
The Chocó rocket frog (Hyloxalus chocoensis) is confined to western Colombia (Chocó, Valle del Cauca, and Antioquia departments), where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
Silverstone’s rocket frog (Colostethus imbricolus) is known only from a small area of western Colombia (Chocó department).
The lowland cryptic forest frog (Ectopoglossus lacrimosus) occurs in the lowlands and foothills of western Colombia (Cauca, Valle del Cauca, and Chocó departments), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Agua Bonita robber frog (Pristimantis hybotragus) is confined to a few localities in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca department), where it is threatened by loss of habitat. Rosado’s robber frog (P. rosadoi) is found in north-western Ecuador (Carchi, Esmeraldas, and Pichincha provinces) and south-western Colombia (Nariño department). A supposed population on Gorgona Island almost certainly represents an as-yet undescribed species.
The coastal Ecuador ditch frog (Leptodactylus peritoaktites) is known only from two small, widely separated areas of western Ecuador.
The Quebrada Guanguí egg frog (Ctenophryne minor) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Cauca department).
The Colorado dwarf frog (Engystomops coloradorum) is known only from a small area of north-western Ecuador (Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas province).
Three species of climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa) endemic to southern Mesoamerican lowland rainforests are threatened by habitat destruction. Silverstone’s climbing salamander (B. silverstonei) is known only from a single locality in western Colombia (Chocó department). The Camp Sasardi climbing salamander (B. cuna) is known only from the lowlands of eastern Panama (eastern Guna Yala province). The Hotel Zaracay climbing salamander (B. chica) is known only from four localities in north-western Ecuador (Pichincha and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces).
The Yavisa caecilian (Oscaecilia elongata) is known only from its original collection in the 1940s from eastern Panama (Darién province). The locality has since been heavily degraded by urbanization.
Lowland Tropical Dry Forests
Areas of seasonal lowland tropical dry forest occur sporadically from southern Mexico to north-western Costa Rica and again in Ecuador and north-western Peru. Central American Lowland Dry Forests Scattered patches of lowland dry forest still remain in eastern Mexico on the northern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula as well as in a small area of east-central coastal Mexico and much of the south-western and southern Mexican Pacific coast. A further pocket is found along the southern coast of Guatemala, extending through western coastal El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and north-western Costa Rica. Isolated areas occur as well within the arid interior valleys of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras.
The Oaxacan pocket gopher (Orthogeomys cuniculus) is confined to a few localities on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec of southern Mexico (Oaxaca).
The Chiapan climbing rat (Tylomys bullaris) is known only from a single locality near the city of Tuxtla Gutierrez in southern Mexico (Chiapas).
The Magdelena wood rat (Xenomys nelsoni) is confined to a small area of south-western Mexico (Colima and western Jalisco).
Genoways’ yellow bat (Rhogeessa genowaysi) is known only from two localities in southern Mexico (southern Chiapas).
The Tehuantepec spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura oaxacana) is confined to a small area on the Pacific coast of southern Mexico (Oaxaca), where it is threatened by loss of habitat and hunting for its meat.
The Rio Marquez Valley leaf-toed gecko (Phyllodactylus paucituberculatus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1960 from south-western Mexico (Michoacán).
Simmons’ anole (Anolis simmonsi) is a type of lizard confined to a small area of south-western Mexico (Oaxaca). The Tehuantepec anole (A. boulengerianus) is confined to a small area of southern Mexico (Oaxaca). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The plain-necked glass lizard (Anguis incomptus) is known only from a small area of east-central Mexico (southeastern San Luis Potosí).
The Colima hognose pit viper (Porthidium hespere) is known only from four specimens collected from two widely separated localities in southern Mexico (Colima and Michoacán).
The Tehuantepec striped snake (Geagras redimitus) is confined to a small area of southern Mexico on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Oaxaca).
The Tehuantepec earth snake (Geophis isthmicus) is known only from an indefinite type locality in southern Mexico on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Oaxaca).
The La Union centipede snake (Tantilla sertula) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1978 from south-western Mexico (south-western Guerrero). The Petén centipede snake (T. tecta) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Guatemala (Petén department).
Ramirez’s hook-nosed snake (Ficimia ramirezi) is known only from a single locality in southern Mexico on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Oaxaca).
The jewelled toad (Incilius gemmifer) is known only from two small, isolated localities in coastal south-western Mexico (Guerrero), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley
The Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley is located in southern Mexico (Michoacán, Guerrero, Morelos, Puebla, Oaxaca, and México). It is notable for its tropical dry broadleaf forests, which host a remarkable degree of endemism and diversity. Unfortunately, only about 10 per cent of the original extent remains.
The least yellow bat (Rhogeessa mira) is known only from a small number of specimens collected near the Infiernillo Dam in southern Michoacán.
The Balsas spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura clarki) is confined to dry forests of the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley in Michoacán, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The Tepalcatepec skink (Mesoscincus altamirani) is known only from two localities within the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley (central Michoacán).
The Tepalcatepec toad (Incilius pisinnus) is known only from the Tepalcatepec Valley in Michoacán. Yucatán Dry Forests Areas of dry forest are to be found on the north-western Yucatán Peninsula in south-eastern Mexico (Campeche and Yucatán).
The Yucatán spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura defensor) is confined to the northern Yucatan Peninsula, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and collection for the international pet trade.
Pacific Equatorial Lowland Dry Forests
Areas of lowland dry forest historically occurred throughout much of coastal Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Manabí, Guayas, Santa Elena, and El Oro provinces) and north-western Peru (Tumbes department). The region has been severely impacted by habitat destruction due to agricultural expansion and only fragments of forest now remain.
The equatorial dog-faced bat (Molossops aequatorianus) is known only from two localities in central coastal Ecuador (Guayas province).
The equatorial great green macaw (Ara ambiguus guayaquilensis) is confined to dry forest remnants within two disjunct areas of north-western and central-western coastal Ecuador.
The Ecuadorian blind snake (Anomalepis flavapices) is known only from two specimens collected in north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Menabí provinces).
Lowland Deserts and Xeric Shrublands
There are extensive areas of desert to be found in Mexico, with outlying patches in Guatemala.
The hairy harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys hirsutus) is confined to a small area of western coastal Mexico (Nayarit and Jalisco), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The Yucatán wren (Campylorhynchus yucatanicus) is confined to a small area of the northern Yucatán Peninsula in south-eastern Mexico, where it remains fairly common.
The Motagua Valley
The Motagua Valley (Valle de Motagua in Spanish) is located in eastern Guatemala (Zacapa and El Progreso departments). One of the driest areas in Central America, its vegetation consists mainly of cacti and thorny bushes known as Motagua Valley thorn scrub.
The Motagua Valley spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura palearis) has a total population of less than 2000. It is threatened by collection by locals for meat and for the international pet trade.
The Motagua Valley beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti) numbers only a few hundred individuals, and is declining.
The Motagua rain frog (Craugastor inachus) is confined to the Motagua Valley, where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
Isolated Caves, Springs, and Pools
Karst areas as well as cave and spring systems occur throughout Mexico and in other parts of Central America.
Jordan’s Mexican tetra (Astyanax mexicanus jordani) is confined to about 30 isolated cave populations across three disjunct areas of north-eastern Mexico (San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas).
The blind whiskered catfish (Rhamdia reddelli) is known only from a single cave within the Tonto River drainage in southern Mexico (northern Oaxaca), where it is threatened by pollution and water extraction.
The Yucatán Cave and Cenote System
The northern Yucatán Peninsula of eastern Mexico (Yucatán and Quintana Roo) is notable for its system of flooded limestone caves and cenotes (sinkholes).
The Mexican blind brotula (Typhliasina pearsei) and the blind swamp eel (Ophisternon infernale) are both confined to sinkholes and flooded limestone caves in the Yucatán cave and cenote system.
The Charco La Palma Spring System
The Charco la Palma spring system is located within the Sierra Madre Oriental of north-eastern Mexico (Nuevo León).
Four species of pupfish (Cyprinodon) are (or were) historically endemic to the Charco La Palma spring system, where each inhabited its own spring pool. The posthumous pupfish (C. inmemoriam) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1984. The species is believed to have gone extinct soon after when its spring dried up completely owing to excessive groundwater extraction. The Villa Lopez pupfish (C. ceciliae) was historically confined to the small, isolated Oja de Agua la Presa, where it is thought to have gone extinct in 1991 when the latter dried up completely, despite some subsequent recovery of groundwater levels. Veronica’s pupfish (C. veronicae) and the long-finned pupfish (C. longidorsalis) were also confined to the Ojo de Agua la Presa, where they have not been recorded since the mid 1990s. Fortunately, both survive in captivity.
Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes
Central America’s biologically important freshwater habitats are seriously threatened by pollution, water extraction, and drought.
The Mexican water mouse (Rheomys mexicanus) is a semiaquatic species confined to wetland areas of south-western Mexico (southern Oaxaca), where it is threatened by loss of habitat and pollution.
Morelet’s crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) is found in eastern and south-eastern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize, where it was heavily exploited for its leather during the mid-twentieth century. While some illegal hunting continues, the species has recovered considerably and is once again to be found in protected areas throughout its historic range.
The Central American river turtle (Dermatemys mawii) is a large species from southern Mexico (Veracruz, Tasbasco, Chiapas, and Campeche), northern Guatemala (Petén department), and Belize, where it is seriously threatened due to overcollection for its meat, eggs, and shells.
The Central American snapping turtle (Chelydra rossignonii) is found from southern Mexico (Veracruz), through southern Belize, central Guatemala and north-western Honduras, but is everywhere declining.
The ornate slider (Trachemys ornata) is a type of turtle confined to a small area of south-western Mexico (Jalisco, Nayarit, Sinaloa, and possibly Guerrero). It is threatened by habitat destruction and pollution.
Three little-known species of mud turtle (Kinosternon) are potentially threatened by habitat destruction and pollution. The Oaxaca mud turtle (K. oaxacae) is confined to the Colotepec and Tonameca rivers in south-western Mexico (Oaxaca and Guerrero). The Alamos mud turtle (K. alamosae) is found in north-western Mexico (Sinaloa and Sonora). The narrow-bridged mud turtle (K. angustipons) is found in Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama.
Rossman’s garter snake (Thamnophis rossmani) is a highly aquatic species known only from a single locality in western Mexico (Nayarit).
Myers’ pipa toad (Pipa myersi) is confined to swamps and wetlands of the Darién Gap of eastern Panama and possibly north-western Colombia.
Several species of semi-aquatic leopard frog (Lithobates) are threatened by loss of habitat, water pollution, drought, predation from introduced species and disease. Dunn’s leopard frog (L. dunni) is known from Lake Pátzcuaro, Lake Cutizeo, and a few surrounding streams with the Morelia River drainage in south-western Mexico (Michoacán). The Tarahumara leopard frog (L. tarahumarae) was historically widespread from the south-western United States (south-central Arizona) through the Sierra Madre Occidental of northwestern Mexico. It has been extirpated from the United States since 1983, and from many other localities since. John’s leopard frog (L. johni) is found discontinuously in centralwestern Mexico (San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, and Puebla). The Guatemalan leopard frog (L. macroglossa) is confined to a few localities in south-western and south-central Guatemala, possibly extending into adjacent areas of southern Mexico (Chiapas). The big-footed leopard frog (L. megapoda) is confined to permanent lakes, lagoons, and rivers in south-western Mexico (Jalisco, Nayarit, Michoacán, and Guanajuato).
Several species of stream or mole salamander (Ambystoma) are confined to small areas of southern and central Mexico, generally in mountain streams. The axolotl (A. mexicanum) has disappeared from most of its historical range in the wetlands of south-central Mexico, and is today confined to canals on the southern edge of Mexico City. The Michoacán stream salamander (A. ordinarium) is confined to north-eastern Michoacán and west-central México states. The Toluca stream salamander (A. rivulare) is known from México and Guerrero states, as well as Distrito Federal. The delicate-skinned salamander (A. bombypellum) is known only from a single locality near San Martin in north-western México state. The granular salamander (A. granulosum) is confined to a small area near Toluca in México state.
Eigenmann’s cichlid (Mesoheros gephyrum) is confined to the San Juan and Dagua river drainages of western Colombia, where it is threatened by sedimentation and pollution.
The Sapayo cichlid (Andinoacara sapayensis) is known from the Sapayo River within the Cantiago-Cayapas drainage of north-western Ecuador, and most likely also occurs in the Patía River of south-western Colombia. The two-series cichlid (A. biseriatus) is confined to the Atrato, San Juan, Dagua, and Baudó river drainages of western Colombia, where it is threatened by sedimentation and pollution.
The Mexican golden trout (Oncorhynchus chrysogaster) is confined to high-elevation headwater streams within the Sierra Madre Occidental of north-western Mexico. It is threatened by habitat destruction and, potentially, hybridization with introduced rainbow trout (O. mykiss).
Radda’s fish (Pseudopoecilia austrocolumbiana) is only known from a few specimens collected from rainforest stream in south-western Colombia (Nariño department).
Gerring’s toadfish (Daector gerringi) is a freshwater and marine species confined to the lower reaches of the San Juan and Baudó rivers of western Colombia (Chocó department).
The Chapultepec splitfin (Girardinichthys viviparus) was historically confined to the Valley of Mexico wetlands, including Lake Texcoco, although it was able to spread to the Pánuco River drainage as well as through man-made channels. Most populations near Mexico City have disappeared, and today the species survives only in a few scattered localities. The highland splitfin (G. turneri) is confined to a few rivers, lakes, and springs in south-central Mexico (Michoacán). The dark-edged splitfin (G. multiradiatus) is found in south-central Mexico (México, Michoacán, Querétaro, Morelos, and Hidalgo), primarily within the Lerma River drainage. All are seriously threatened by loss of habitat, sedimentation, and pollution.
The leopard splitfin (Xenotaenia resolanae) is confined to the Purificación and Marabasco river drainages of southwestern Mexico (Jalisco and Colima). It is threatened by pollution and invasive fish species.
The opal goodeid (Allotoca maculata) was historically confined to a small area of south-western Mexico west of Guadalajara (Jalisco), where it was known from the endorheic Laguna Magdalena basin, including several irrigation channels, the Laguna El Palo Verde, and a few other creeks and springs. The species was extirpated from many of the latter decades ago due to loss of habitat and introduced fish species, and is now on the brink of extinction.
Eigenmann’s characin (Cynopotamus atratoensis) is confined to floodplain lakes within the Sinú and Atrato river drainages of north-western Colombia, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and overfishing.
The swift characin (Hemibrycon velox) is known only from a single creek in north-western coastal Colombia (Córdoba department).
The Chota Valley characin (Bryconamericus simus) is known only from the Chota Valley in north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas and/or Pichincha provinces).
Kyburz’s toothless characin (Pseudochalceus kyburzi) is a little-known species confined to coastal rivers of western Colombia. Géry’s toothless characin (P. longianalis) is confined to the Patía and Mira rivers of south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and to a few tributaries of the Santiago River in north-western Ecuador. Both are threatened by water pollution due to mining operations.
The blank characin (Parastremma album) is known from the Baudó and San Juan rivers of western Colombia (Chocó department).
The Nariño lebiasina (Lebiasina narinensis) is known only from a single ravine in south-western Colombia (Nariño department).
Fowler’s tetra (Brycon fowleri) is confined to the San Juan and Atrato river drainages of north-western Colombia (Chocó department), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
Sebastian’s tetra (Hyphessobrycon sebastiani) is known only from two disjunct localities within the Calima and San Juan rivers of western coastal Colombia (Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments). The Condoto tetra (H. condotensis) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Condoto and San Juan rivers in western coastal Colombia (Chocó department), where it is threatened by water pollution due to mining activity. The Chocó tetra (H. chocoensis) is known only from the Qugalpí and Telembí river drainages of southwestern Colombia (Nariño department).
The emperor tetra (Nematobrycon palmeri) is confined to the San Juan and Atrato river drainages of north-western Colombia (Chocó department). This species is, however, a popular ornamental fish and is well established in the international aquarium trade.
Eigenmann’s tetra (Astyanax daguae) is known from the Anchicayá and Dagua rivers in western coastal Colombia, where it is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation. Fowler’s tetra (A. megaspilura) is known only from a few localities in western coastal Colombia (Chocó department).
The black-spotted livebearer (Poeciliopsis turneri) is confined to the Purificación and Marabasco river drainages of south-western Mexico (Jalisco).
The Mexican rivulus (Millerichthys robustus) is a type of annual killifish confined to the Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos river drainages of southern Mexico (Veracruz and Oaxaca).
Hildebrand’s pupfish (Tlaloc hildebrandi) is confined to a few localities within the upper reaches of the Grijalva and Usamacinta river drainages of southern Mexico (Chiapas), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and introduced fish species.
Spurrelli’s knifefish (Apteronotus spurrellii) is confined to a few isolated populations in the river drainages of coastal western Colombia.
Henn’s banded knifefish (Gymnotus henni) is confined to the Baudó, San Juan, and Dagua river drainages of western Colombia, where it is threatened by habitat degradation and pollution.
Meek’s catfish (Ictalurus australis) is confined to the Blanco and Pánuco rivers of eastern Mexico, where it is threatened mainly by overfishing.
Regan’s pencil catfish (Trichomycterus regani) is confined to the Baudó and San Juan river drainages of western Colombia, where it is threatened by habitat degradation.
Wilson’s suckermouth catfish (Hypostomus wilsoni) is found in the Sinú, lower Atrato, and Truandó river drainages of north-western Colombia (Córdoba, Antioquia, and Chocó departments), where it has been much reduced by overfishing.
The connected suckermouth catfish (Hypostomus annectens) is known only from a few scattered localities in southwestern Colombia and north-western Ecuador, where it is threatened by mining and agricultural pollution.
The different-toothed naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus heterodon) and Eigenmann’s suckermouth catfish (A. ventralis) are confined to the San Juan and Dagua river drainages of western Colombia, where they are threatened by pollution.
Valley of Mexico Wetlands
The Valley of Mexico (Valle de México in Spanish) is a highlands plateau roughly coterminous with present-day Mexico City, the eastern half of México state, and parts of Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, and Puebla. Surrounded by mountains and volcanoes, it contained five, now-extinct lakes (Zumpango, Xaltocan, Texcoco, Chalco, and Xochimilco), with all the endemic fishes having gone extinct by the end of the twentieth century.
The Tlaloc leopard frog (Lithobates tlaloci) historically inhabited lakes, ditches, and channels in the area south of Mexico City. It is most likely extinct.
The plateau dace (Evarra eigenmanni) is known only from its original collection in 1901 and another in 1954. It is almost certainly extinct, the result of habitat destruction. The Tláhuac dace (E. tlahuacensis) is known only from a single specimen collected near Mexico City in 1901. A victim of growing urbanization, it was declared extinct in 1986. Bustamente’s dace (E. bustamantei) was last seen in 1970, and is thought to have become extinct around 1983 when the canals and streams in which it lived dried up.
Lake Chichancanab
Lake Chichancanab (Laguna Chichancanab in Spanish) is actually a complex of several brackish, endorheic lakes following a fault line located in the central Yucatán Peninsula of south-eastern Mexico (Quintana Roo). In 2004 it was protected as a Ramsar site.
This lake is one of the only places where more than one pupfish (Cyprinodon) species historically occurred sympatrically, having evolved within different niches. Unfortunately, all have been decimated by introduced fish species and pollution. The Maya pupfish (C. maya), hidden pupfish (C. esconditus), boxer pupfish (C. simus), and Strecker’s pupfish (C. suavium) are all most likely extinct in the wild, but fortunately survive in captivity. The largefin pupfish (C. verecundus), blackfin pupfish (C. beltrani), and thicklip pupfish (C. labiosus) are still present within the lake.
Lake Pátzcuaro
Lake Pátzcuaro (Lago de Pátzcuaro in Spanish) is a highaltitude endorheic lake located in southern Mexico (northwestern Michoacán). It has been degraded by habitat destruction, pollution, and the introduction of predatory fish.
The Pátzcuaro salamander (Ambystoma dumerilii) is a neotenic species confined to Lake Pátzcuaro.
The slender silverside (Chirostoma attenuatum) is a type of freshwater fish confined to Lake Pátzcuaro.
The Pátzcuaro allotoca (Allotoca diazi) was historically found in Lake Pátzcuaro and some of its tributaries. It now appears to have been extirpated from the lake itself, and is currently known only from a few localities along the Canal la Ciénega, the most important of which is the main spring at the old mill at Chapultepec.
Lake Atitlán
Lake Atitlán (Lago de Atitlán in Spanish) is located in northern Guatemala (Solalá department). With a maximum depth of about 340 m it is the deepest lake in Central America. Volcanic in origin, it is renowned for its beauty and remains an important tourist attraction, despite recent environmental degradation. The area around the lake became a national park in 1955.
The Atitlán grebe (Podilymbus gigas) was a large, flight impaired waterbird endemic to the lake. During the 1960s its population dropped from about 200 to 80, then recovered to a high of 232 in 1975. The introduction of the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) along with human predation and habitat destruction, however, drove the population down to just 30 by 1983. By 1986 it was extinct.
Lake Alchichica
Lake Alchichica (Laguna de Alchichica in Spanish) is a high altitude, saline crater lake located in east-central Mexico (eastern Puebla).
Taylor’s salamander (Ambystoma taylori) is an aquatic species confined to Lake Alchichica, where it is threatened by water extraction and pollution.
The Alchichica silverside (Poblana alchichica) is confined to Lake Alchichica.
The Lerma–Santiago River Drainage
The Lerma–Santiago River (Río Lerma Santiago in Spanish) is located in west-central Mexico.
The largetooth silverside (Chirostoma arge) is widespread but uncommon within tributaries of the lower and middle Lerma River and upper Rio Verde (a tributary of the Santiago River). It may occur as well in Lake Chapala.
The Lerma River
The Lerma River (Río Lerma in Spanish) begins on the Mexican Plateau and ends where it empties into Lake Chapala. It is highly polluted.
The Lerma salamander (Ambystoma lermaense) is an extremely rare, occasionally neotenic mole salamander confined to Lake Lerma and other sites within the Lerma River drainage.
The Lerma chub (Algansea barbata) is confined to the headwaters of the Lerma River in and near the Valley of Toluca. It was last recorded in 2005.
The Lerma catfish (Ictalurus dugesii) is confined to the Turbio and Ayuquila rivers.
The Alberca Caldera is located within the Lerma–Santiago drainage (Guanajuato).
The Alberca silverside (Chirostoma bartoni) became extinct when the caldera temporarily dried up in August 2006.
Lake Chapala
Lake Chapala (Lago de Chapala in Spanish) is located near Guadalajara, in Jalisco state. It is Mexico’s largest lake.
The blacknose silverside (Chirostoma promelas) is confined to Lake Chapala and a small stretch of the Rio Grande de Santiago exiting the lake.
The Chapala lamprey (Tetrapleurodon spadiceus) is confined to Lake Chapala and a small stretch of the Rio Grande de Santiago exiting the lake.
The Ameca River
The Ameca River (Río Ameca in Spanish) is located in westcentral Mexico (Jalisco and Nayarit). It has a number of highly threatened endemic species.
The Ameca shiner (Notropis amecae) was first described from the upper parts of the Ameca River drainage. Although already feared extinct by 1969, a tiny population was rediscovered in 2001. Some were brought into captivity to form the basis of a captive breeding programme, and the species has since been reintroduced to the river.
The butterfly splitfin (Ameca splendens), a popular fish among aquarists, was historically confined to the Ameca River drainage. Long thought to be extinct in the wild as a result of dam construction, a small population has since been discovered near the town of Ameca.
The tequila splitfin (Zoogoneticus tequila) is confined to a single spring pool in Teuchitlán, only 4 m in diameter, where a population of less than 50 survive. Prior to this the species was thought to have become extinct from the Ameca River drainage, although captive populations have been maintained by aquarists. A reintroduction project is now underway.
The finescale splitfin (Allodontichthys polylepis) was historically known only from three small tributaries of the Ameca River in Jalisco state, where it was heavily impacted by drought and the introduction of invasive swordtails (Xiphophorus hellerii). It now appears to be confined to a single locality.
The banded allotoca (Allotoca goslinei) is known only from a few collections within the headwaters of the Ameca River in Jalisco state, where it was considered rare. The introduction of invasive swordtails (Xiphophorus hellerii) during the twenty first century appears to have driven the species extinct in the wild soon after, although it continues to survive in captivity.
The Amatlan chub (Yuriria amatlana) is confined to the Ameca River drainage.
The Ameca chub (Algansea amecae) is confined to the upper Ameca River drainage.
The Teuchitlán River
The Teuchitlán River is a tributary of the Ameca River located in Jalisco state.
The golden skiffia (Skiffia francesae) is a species of splitfin historically endemic to the Teuchitlán River. Extinct in the wild since the 1980s due to pollution and competition with an introduced fish species, it remains common in aquaria and in the aquarium hobbyist trade.
The Pánuco River
The Pánuco River (Río Pánuco in Spanish) is located in eastcentral Mexico (Hidalgo, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz).
Barton’s cichlid (Nosferatu bartoni) is confined to a few areas of the Pánuco River drainage. The curve-bar cichlid (N. labridens) is confined to the Laguna Media Luna and the headwaters of the Rio Verde River in San Luis Potosí, where it is threatened by falling water tables.
The relict splitfin (Xenoophorus captivus) is confined to springs, small streams, and ditches in the Pánuco River drainage of San Luis Potosí state.
The Rio Verde catfish (Ictalurus mexicanus) is confined to the upper Pánuco River drainage (San Luis Potosí state).
The Verde River
The Verde River (Río Verde in Spanish) is located in San Luis Potosí state.
The checkered pupfish (Cualac tessellatus) is confined to the Media Luna springs and immediate surroundings within the Verde River drainage.
The striped goodeid (Ataeniobius toweri) is confined to the Verde River and associated waters, including the Media Luna springs and Lake Los Anteojitos.
The flatjaw minnow (Tampichthys mandibularis) and the bicolour minnow (T. dichromus) are both confined to a few localities within the Verde River drainage, where they are seriously threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
The Tamesí River
The Tamesí River (Río Tamesí in Spanish) is located in Tamaulipas state.
The broad-spotted molly (Poecilia latipunctata) was historically confined to a small area of the Tamesí River, but has since been introduced into other drainages in Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Veracruz, and Puebla states.
The Gallinas River
The Gallinas River (Río Gallinas in Spanish) is located in San Luis Potosí state.
The Gallinas minnow (Tampichthys catostomops) is known only from the Tamasopo and Ojo Frio rivers, tributaries of the Gallinas River.
The San Pedro Mezquital River
The San Pedro Mezquital River (Río San Pedro Mezquital in Spanish) is located on the Pacific slope in central-western Mexico (Durango).
The Mezquital pupfish (Cyprinodon meeki) is known only from streams, springs, ponds, and ditches within the headwaters of the San Pedro Mezquital. It is threatened by habitat destruction, pollution, and introduced species.
The rainbow characodon (Characodon lateralis) and the bold characodon (C. audax) were both historically known only from a few small creeks and springs within the San Pedro Mezquital drainage, from where they have been largely extirpated due to drought and introduced species.
The Tunal River
The Tunal River (Río del Tunal in Spanish) forms the headwaters of the San Pedro Mezquital.
The Durango shiner (Notropis aulidion) was historically confined to the Tunal River. It was collected in 1951 and again in 1961, but is now considered extinct.
The Grijalva River
The Grijalva River (Río Grijalva in Spanish; formerly known as the Tabasco River) is located in south-eastern Mexico (Chiapas and Tabasco).
The tailbar cichlid (Vieja hartwegi) is confined to the upper Grijalva River.
The Baños del Azufre and La Gloria Springs
The Baños del Azufre (‘Sulphur Baths’) are a 2.5-km stretch of the Pichucalco River tributary located near Teapa, in Tabasco state. Both contain high concentrations of toxic hydrogen sulphide, which prevents most creatures from living in them.
The widemouth gambusia (Gambusia eurystoma) is entirely confined to the Baños del Azufre, where it is considered to be highly vulnerable.
The sulphur molly (Poecilia sulphuraria) is found in the Baños del Azufre as well as in the nearby La Gloria springs.
The San Juan River
The San Juan River (Río San Juan in Spanish) is located in western coastal Colombia (Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments). It rises on Cerro Caramanta in the Western Andes and flows to the Pacific.
The rainbow tetra (Nematobrycon lacortei) is known from the San Juan River and its tributary, the Calima River.
The Condoto killifish (Cynodonichthys pacificus) is known only from a single locality within the upper San Juan River drainage.
The Istmina killifish (Priapichthys nigroventralis) is known only from two specimens collected from the middle San Juan River.
Spurrelli’s three-barbelled catfish (Imparfinis spurrellii) is known only from a single catchment within the San Juan River drainage, where it is seriously threatened by illegal mining activities and deforestation.
The few-spined bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma paucispinis) is known only from a single locality within the San Juan River drainage.
The Tamaná River
The Tamaná River (Río Tamaná in Spanish) is located within the upper San Juan River drainage (Chocó department).
The thin-tailed bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma lepturum) and Palmer’s bristlemouth catfish (C. palmeri) are both known only from the Tamaná River. Both are threatened by mining pollution and sedimentation caused by cattle ranching.
The Condoto River
The Condoto River is a middle tributary of the San Juan River located in Chocó department.
The unicolor pencil catfish (Trichomycterus unicolor) is known only from the Condoto River, where it is threatened by sedimentation due to artisanal mining activities.
The Becordó River
The Becordó River is a middle tributary of the San Juan River located in Chocó department.
The beautiful characin (Parastremma pulchrum) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Becordó River.
The Acandí River
The Acandí River (Río Acandí in Spanish) is located in northwestern Colombia (Chocó department), on the Caribbean coast.
The Acandí molly (Poecilia mechthildae) is known only from three specimens collected from a single locality within the Acandí River drainage.
The Acandí tetra (Hyphessobrycon columbianus) was, until relatively recently, known only from a few specimens collected from the Acandí River drainage. It has since come into the international aquarium trade.
The Atrato River
The Atrato River (Río Atrato in Spanish) is located in western Colombia. It rises on the slopes of the Cordillera Occidental and flows almost due north to the Caribbean Sea where it forms a large, swampy delta.
Medem’s tetra (Brycon medemi) is known only from a few localities in the upper Atrato River drainage.
Landon’s tetra (Pterobrycon landoni) is known only from a few specimens collected within the lower and middle Atrato River drainage.
The Chintadó characin (Hemibrycon microformaa) is known only from the upper Atrato River drainage.
The Atrato scrapetooth (Parodon atratoensis) is known only from the Neguá, Sucio, and Truandó rivers, tributaries of the middle Atrato River.
Rengifo’s naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus rengifoi) is known only from its original collection in 1960 within a small brook in eastern Chocó department. The locality has not been revisited since due to political instability.
The Ichó River
The Ichó River (Río Ichó in Spanish) is located in the upper Atrato River drainage (Chocó department).
The Ichó characin (Bryconamericus ichoensis) is known only from a single tributary of the Ichó River.
The Truandó River
The Truandó River (Río Truandó in Spanish) is located in the middle and lower Atrato River drainage (Chocó department).
The tiger teddy (Neoheterandria elegans) is a small type of fish known only from the Truandó River.
The Truandó whiptail catfish (Spatuloricaria atratoensis) is known only from a tributary of the Truandó River.
The Jurubidá River (Río Jurubidá in Spanish) is a tributary of the Truandó River located in coastal north-western Colombia (Chocó department).
The Jurubidá knifefish (Apteronotus jurubidae) is known only from the Jurubidá River.
Fowler’s catfish (Cetopsis jurubidae) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1940s from the Jurubidá River.
Sneidern’s whiptail catfish (Rineloricaria sneiderni) is known only from a single locality in the Jurubidá River.
The Sucio River
The Sucio River (Río Sucio in Spanish) is located within the lower Atrato River drainage (Chocó and Antioquia departments).
The Sucio characin (Bryconamericus multiradiatus) is known only from a few specimens collected from two localities within the Sucio River drainage.
The Calles River
The Calles River (Río Calles in Spanish) is located in the lower Atrato River drainage (Antioquia department).
Jimenez’s naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus jimenezae) is known only from its original collection within the Calles River.
The Esmeraldas River
The Esmeraldas River (Río Esmeraldas in Spanish) is located in north-western Ecuador. It has extensive mangroves at its mouth where it meets the Pacific Ocean.
Boehlke’s toothless characin (Pseudochalceus bohlkei) is a type of freshwater fish known only from a small tributary of the Esmeraldas River.
Whymper’s naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus whymperi) is confined to fast-flowing Andean streams within the Esmeraldas River drainage.
The Mira River
The Mira River (Río Mira in Spanish) originates in the Andes of Ecuador and flows to the Pacific Ocean in Colombia.
The Guebo River
The Guebo River is located in the upper Mira River drainage of south-western Colombia (Nariño department).
The Guebo characin (Bryconamericus miraensis) is known only from the Guebo River.
The Guiza River
The Guiza River is located within the upper Mira River drainage of south-western Colombia (Nariño department).
The Guiza characin (Bryconamericus guizae) is known only from tributary streams of the Guiza River.
Miscellaneous Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes
Lake Quechulac (Lago de Quechulac in Spanish) is a small crater lake located in east-central Mexico (Puebla).
The Quechulac silverside (Poblana squamata) is confined to the lake, where it is threatened by overfishing and introduced fish species.
Lake La Preciosa (Laguna La Preciosa in Spanish) is a small, high-elevation crater lake located in east-central Mexico (Puebla).
The La Preciosa silverside (Poblana letholepis) is confined to Lake La Preciosa.
Lake Zacapú (Laguna de Zacapú in Spanish) is a small lake located on the Central Plateau of Mexico in northwestern Michoacán.
Anderson’s salamander (Ambystoma andersoni) is known only from Lake Zacapú and an associated stream.
Lake Petén Itzá (Lago Petén Itzá in Spanish) is located in northern Guatemala (Petén department).
The Petén Itzá cichlid (Amphilophus margaritifer) is confined to Lake Petén Itzá.
Lake Apoyo (Laguna de Apoyo in Spanish) is located in south-western Nicaragua (Masaya and Granada departments).
The arrow cichlid (Amphilophus zaliosus) is confined to Lake Apoyo.
Lake Xiloá (Laguna Xiloá in Spanish, and also known as Lago Jiloá) is located on the Chiltepe Peninsula, western Nicaragua (Managua department).
The Xiloá silverside (Atherinella jiloaensis) is confined to Lake Xiloá, where it is highly threatened by pollution and introduced fish species.
Lake Las Minas (Lago de las Minas in Spanish) is located in east-central Mexico (Puebla).
The Las Minas leopard frog (Lithobates chichicuahutla) is confined to areas of vegetation surrounding Lake Las Minas.
The Nazas River is located in north-western Mexico (Coahuila and Durango).
The Tepehuan shiner (Cyprinella alvarezdelvillari) is confined to a small, spring-fed tributary of the Nazas River in Durango.
The Motzorongo River (Río Motzorongo in Spanish) is located in southern Mexico (Veracruz).
The graceful priapella (Priapella bonita) was known only in a small area of the Motzorongo River, where it appears to have gone extinct by the 1950s.
The Coatzacalcos River (Río Coatzacoalcos in Spanish) is located in southern Mexico (Veracruz).
The yellow swordtail (Xiphophorus clemenciae) is confined to streams and brooks within the upper Coatzacoalcos River drainage.
The Papaloapan River (Río Papaloapan in Spanish) is located in southern Mexico (Veracruz and Oaxaca).
The Papaloapan shiner (Notropis moralesi) is known only from the Papaloapan River drainage.
The Patía River (Río Patía in Spanish) is located in southwestern Colombia.
The Patía toothless characin (Pseudocurimata patiae) is confined to the Patía River.
The Santiago-Cayapas River is located in north-western Ecuador.
The Santiago-Cayapas armoured catfish (Sturisomatichthys frenatus) is confined to a single locality within the Santiago-Cayapas drainage, where it is seriously threatened by gold-mining and agricultural activities.
Coasts and Satellite Islands
The section includes the Central American coasts from northwestern Mexico to south-western Ecuador on the Pacific side and from central Mexico to north-western Colombia on the Gulf and Carribean side, along with various small offshore islands.
The Tehuantepec jackrabbit (Lepus flavigularis) is confined to four small, isolated populations around the Laguna Superior and Laguna Inferior of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, southern Mexico (Oaxaca). It is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
The tropical pocket gopher (Geomys tropicalis) is confined to a small area of coastal eastern Mexico (south-eastern Tamaulipas).
Findley’s mouse-eared bat (Myotis findleyi) is largely confined to the Marías Islands, with occasional records from the western Mexican coast.
The Belize leaf-toed gecko (Phyllodactylus insularis) is confined to several small islands (cayes) off the coast of Belize.
The Crab Cay anole (Anolis pinchoti) is confined to three small islands in the south-western Caribbean (Isla de Providencia, Santa Catalina, and Crab Cay).
Ceron’s glass lizard (Ophisaurus ceroni) is known only from a small area of coastal dunes in southern Mexico (central Veracruz).
The Pacific horned frog (Ceratophrys stolzmanni) is confined to a small area of coastal scrub along the Gulf of Guayaquil in southernmost Ecuador, where it is threatened by loss of habitat, drought, and collection for the international pet trade.
Mangroves
Central America still has extensive areas of mangroves, although all are increasingly under threat from coastal development.
The mangrove hummingbird (Amazilia boucardi) has a small and disjunct distribution within the mangrove forests of the Pacific coast of Costa Rica.
Mocquard’s swamp snake (Tretanorhinus mocquardi) is known only from a small number of historical coastal swamp and mangrove localities on both the Caribbean and Pacific sides of Panama, most of which have already been destroyed by coastal development. A single collection from Ecuador suggests that the species may be more widespread along the north-western coast of South America, although could equally represent an accidental transport by boat.
Peters’ running snake (Coniophanes dromiciformis) is confined to coastal forests and mangroves in south-western Ecuador (Guayas province) and possibly northern Peru, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
Cozumel
Cozumel is an island in the Caribbean Sea off the eastern coast of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula. It is largely covered with mangrove forest.
The Cozumel pygmy raccoon (Procyon pygmaeus) is an island dwarf endemic to Cozumel.
The Cozumel harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys spectabilis) is very rare, patchily distributed and vulnerable to introduced cats, dogs, and boa constrictors.
The Cozumel great curassow (Crax rubra griscomi) is a large, pheasant-like bird confined to Cozumel, where the total population numbers only a few hundred.
The Cozumel thrasher (Toxostoma guttatum) was formerly common but appears to have declined rapidly following Hurricane Gilbert in 1988, and has rarely been reported since then. Any remaining population must be very small.
Cocos Island
Located about 550 km south-west of Costa Rica, Cocos Island (Isla del Coco in Spanish) is covered by dense forests and mangroves. Never having been linked to a continent it has consequently evolved a high number of endemic forms. The entire island was designated a national park in 1978, although no measures have been taken to reduce introduced populations of feral deer, pigs, goats, cats, and rats.
The Cocos mangrove cuckoo (Coccyzus ferrugineus) is confined to Cocos Island, where the total population in 2016 was estimated at ‘significantly below 1000’.
The Cocos flycatcher (Nesotriccus ridgwayi) is confined to Cocos Island, where it is threatened by introduced species.
The Cocos tanager (Pinaroloxias inornata) is confined to Cocos Island, where it is still fairly common in lowland areas.
Coiba Island
The largest island in Central America, Coiba Island (Isla Coiba in Spanish) is located on the Pacific coast of Panama. A former penal colony, it was declared a national park in 1992 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005.
The Coiba howler (Alouatta palliata coibensis) is a type of monkey confined to Coiba Island, where it is fairly well protected.
The Coiba agouti (Dasyprocta coibae) is a little-known rodent species endemic to the island.
Gorgona Island
Gorgona Island (Isla Gorgona in Spanish) is located in the Pacific Ocean, about 35 km off the coast of Colombia. Like Coiba Island it served as a penal colony until 1984, when it was declared a national park. A mountainous island, it is covered with dense, pristine subtropical forests and, as such, is of enormous importance in terms of biodiversity. It has no permanent human population except for research and ecotourism personnel.
The Gorgona white-faced capuchin (Cebus capucinus curtus) is a type of monkey confined to Gorgona Island.
The blue anole (Anolis gorgonae) is threatened by predation from the introduced western basilisk (Basiliscus galeritus).
Tumaco and Bocagrande Islands
Tumaco Island (Isla de Tumaco in Spanish) is a small, sandy island located off the coast of south-western Colombia, which is nowadays covered by a large port.
The Tumaco chestnut-throated seedeater (Sporophila telasco insulata) is an enigmatic type of small tanager that was discovered on Tumaco in 1912 but not seen again despite numerous searches. However, in 1994 it was rediscovered on nearby Bocagrande Island, where the population is presumably very small.
The Marías Islands
The Marías Islands (Islas Marías in Spanish) are an archipelago of four islands located aproximatately 100 km off the central-western coast of Mexico (Nayarit). In 2010 the group was designated as the Islas Marías Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO.
Two subspecies of racoon (Procyon lotor) historically inhabited the Marías Islands. The María Magdalena raccoon (P. l. vicinus) was confined to María Magdalena, where it is now thought to be extinct. The Marías raccoon (P. l. insularis) still survives on the two main islands of María Madre and María Magdalena, where the total population is thought to be less than 250. It is threatened by hunting.
Grayson’s cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus graysoni) is confined to the Marías Islands, where it is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (S. g. graysoni) is found on María Madre, María Magdalena, and María Cleofas.
The Marías mouse (Peromyscus madrensis) is confined to San Juanito, María Madre, María Magdalena, and María Cleofás.
The Marías yellow-headed Amazon (Amazona oratrix tresmariae) is a type of parrot confined to the Marías Islands.
Maríe Madre
Maríe Madre (Isla María Madre in Spanish) is the largest of the Marías Islands. It has been a penal colony since 1905.
The Maríe Madre rice rat (Oryzomys nelsoni) is known only from four specimens collected on María Madre. It was last recorded in 1897.
San Juanito
San Juanito (Isla San Juanito in Spanish) lies off the north coast of María Madre Island.
The San Juanito cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus graysoni badistes) is confined to San Juanito Island.
The Bahía Islands
The Bahía Islands (Islas de la Bahía in Spanish) consist of 8 islands and 53 small cays lying 15–60 km off the northern coast of Honduras.
Roatán
Roatán (Isla de Roatán in Spanish) is the largest of the Bahía Islands.
The Roatán agouti (Dasyprocta ruatanica) is confined to the remaining forests of Roatán, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
The Roatán spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura oedirhina) is confined to Roatán and nearby Isla Barbareta. It historically occurred as well on a number of small satellite cays, but it is not known whether such populations still persist.
The Roatán skink (Marisora roatanae) is known only from a small area of central Roatán.
The Roatán coral snake (Micrurus ruatanus) is confined to western Roatán.
Wilson’s vine snake (Oxybelis wilsoni) is confined to Roatán.
The Roatán longtail snake (Enulius roatenensis) is confined to western Roatán.
Guanaja
Guanaja (Isla de Guanaja in Spanish) is located east of Roatán.
The Guanaja longtail snake (Enulius bifoveatus) is known only from a few specimens collected from a single locality on Guanaja.
The three-banded centipede snake (Tantilla tritaeniata) is a rare species confined to Guanaja.
Útila
Útila (Isla de Útila in Spanish) is the smallest of the three main Bahía Islands.
The Útila spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura bakeri) is confined to mangrove forests and beachfront areas on the island, where the animals as well as their eggs are harvested for human consumption.
The Santanilla Islands
The Santanilla Islands (Islas Santanilla in Spanish) are a chain of three coral islands approximately 100–150 km off the coast of Honduras.
The Little Swan Island hutia (Geocapromys thoracatus) was endemic to the scrub thickets of Little Swan Island, where it was once common. It was driven to extinction through predation by introduced cats, which were released onto the island prior to 1960. A powerful hurricane in 1955 may have hastened the population decline.
The Corn Islands
The Corn Islands (Las Islas del Maíz in Spanish, although the islands are officially known by their English name) are located about 70 km east of the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua.
Big Corn Island
Big Corn Island (Isla Grande del Maíz in Spanish) is the largest of the Corn Islands.
The Big Corn Island skink (Marisora magnacornae) is known only from a single specimen collected on Big Corn Island in 1928.
Little Corn Island
Little Corn Island (Isla Pequeña del Maíz) is located north-east of Big Corn Island.
The Little Corn Island leopard frog (Lithobates miadis) is confined to the rainforests of Little Corn Island.
Escudo de Veraguas Island
Escudo de Veraguas Island (Isla Escudo de Veraguas in Spanish) is a small island located off the Caribbean coast of Panama.
The pygmy three-toed sloth (Bradypus pygmaeus) is confined to Escudo de Veraguas, where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction.
The maritime worm salamander (Oedipina maritima) is confined to Escudo de Veraguas, where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction.
Miscellaneous Islands
Tigre Island (El Tigre in Spanish) is a small volcanic island located off the Pacific coast of southern Honduras, in the Gulf of Fonseca.
Stuart’s worm salamander (Oedipina stuarti) is known only from two specimens said to have originated on Tigre Island, although it is possible that they actually came from somewhere on the Honduran mainland.
Ometepe Island (Isla de Ometepe in Spanish) is formed by two volcanoes rising out of Lake Nicaragua.
The Ometepe climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa insularis) is known only from a single specimen collected from the southern volcano on Ometepe Island.
San Andrés Island (Isla San Andrés in Spanish) is a densely populated coraline island located in the south-western Caribbean, east of Nicaragua.
The San Andrés vireo (Vireo caribaeus) is a type of passerine bird confined to San Andrés Island, where it remains relatively common. Barro Colorado Island is located in the man-made Gatun Lake in the middle of the Panama Canal. The island was formed when the Chagres River was dammed to form the lake in 1913. When the waters rose, they covered a significant part of the existing tropical rainforest, but certain hilltops remained.
Barbour’s centipede snake (Tantilla albiceps) is known only from a single specimen collected on Barro Colorado Island in the 1920s.
Anthropogenic effects on the flora and fauna
Although parts of Central America are relatively young in terms of human presence, the latter have nevertheless misused the land earlier than elsewhere in the Americas. Historically almost entirely covered by tropical forests and scrub, much of the former is either gone or has been greatly modified. Mesoamerica was originally inhabited by indigenous people that had migrated there at least 13,000 years ago from North America. Sometime between 2000 and 300 bc, more complex cultures began to form in the region, some of which matured into highly advanced pre-Columbian civilizations. Notable among these were the Toltec and Aztec kingdoms of what is now northern and central Mexico; the Teotihuacan, Zapotec, and Mixtec of southern Mexico; and the Maya of south-eastern Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Agriculture in these areas developed rapidly and spread ever southwards, greatly affecting the natural landscape, at least locally. The Mayan civilization is a particularly interesting warning from history. After rising in the fifth century bc, it prospered for almost 600 years before undergoing a sudden decline and fall. There are many possible explainations for this, but environmental factors seem to have predominated. Simply put, the deforestation and agricultural methods of these people apparently so impoverished the land that it could no longer support a large population. Thus, a splendid civilization and a mighty kingdom disappeared.
During his four voyages to the Americas in 1502–03, Christopher Columbus explored the Central American coast from off what is now Honduras to the present-day border between Panama and Colombia. In 1513 the Spanish conquistador Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama to reach what is now the Bay of San Miguel, becoming the first European to lead an expedition to have seen or reached the Pacific Ocean from the New World. That same year his countryman Juan Ponce de León explored the Yucatán Peninsula of what is now south-eastern Mexico. In 1518 the conquistador Juan de Grijalva explored the eastern coast, and the following year Hernán Cortés travelled from the Gulf of Mexico to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, in what is now Mexico City. In 1519 the Spanish explorer Gaspar de Espinosa sailed along the western coasts of what are now Panama and Costa Rica, and in 1522 Gil González Dávila explored inland from the Gulf of Nicoya, reaching what is now Lake Nicaragua. Others of his expedition explored along the western coast, reaching the Gulf of Fonseca and perhaps as far as the south-western coast of Guatemala. In 1524–25 the Spanish conquistadors Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro explored the coast of Central and South America from south-western Panama to the San Juan River on the western coast of Colombia, and in 1526–28 Pizarro and his pilot Bartolomé Ruiz would go on to explore further south along the western coast of South America, becoming the first Europeans to sight the coasts of what are now Ecuador and Peru.
The Spanish began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztecs they then proceeded with taking all of northern Central America into their empire. From 1609 to 1821, the majority of Central America (except for what would become Belize and Panama, and including the modern Mexican state of Chiapas) were governed by the viceroyality of New Spain from Mexico City. In 1810 what is now Mexico gained its independence, followed in Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala in 1838 and by El Salvador in 1841, Panama in 1903, and Belize in 1981.
Central America today ranks among the most environmentally devasted areas on Earth. Little wilderness remains, and that which does is mainly to be found in the mountains and in protected areas. Mexico remains one of the world’s most important hotspots for endangered species, the surviving remants of an extraordinarily vast and diverse fauna. Over the past decades agriculture, grazing of livestock, clearing of forests, pollution, and the draining of lakes and marshes have so altered the face of the country that the conquistadors would not recognize it today. The alterations have impoverished both habitats and wildlife, causing the erosion and destruction of productive land. Against this background is an exploding human population. Elsewhere in Central America the situation varies, with Costa Rica notably being one of the most progressive countries in the world in terms of environmentalism.
In recent historical time (i.e. since ad 1500), the Mesoamerican Region has lost at least 27 species/1 subspecies of vertebrates. Among the extinct forms 3 species/1 subspecies are mammals, 3 species are birds, 2 species are reptiles, 14 species are amphibians, and 5 species are freshwater fishes. Another 31 species are possibly extinct, and 6 species are currently extinct in the wild.
In addition, there are 962 species/36 subspecies currently threatened with extinction (that is to say, either Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List, as well as certain forms either listed as Data Deficient or Not Assessed but which are clearly at some risk of extinction). Of these, 105 species/14 subspecies are mammals, 78 species/13 subspecies are birds, 255 species/9 subspecies are reptiles, 412 species are amphibians, and 111 species are freshwater fishes.