The Amazonian Region

The Amazonian Region encompasses much of northern South America apart from the Pacific and Caribbean lowlands of Colombia and Ecuador, the central and southern Andes, and the subtropical, temperate, and subarctic areas to the south. It includes all of the northern (or tropical) Andes along with the vast Amazon basin.

 

Species and subspecies

The muriquis or woolly spider monkeys (Brachyteles) are the largest South American primates and among the world’s most critically threatened. The northern muriqui (B. hypoxanthus) inhabits both humid and dry coastal forests in southeastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Bahia). Hunting and habitat destruction have reduced its numbers to around 1000. The southern muriqui (B. arachnoides) is found in submontane and montane forest remnants in the southeastern Brazilian states of Paraná, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, and Minas Gerais. Its main stronghold, however, appears to be in the Paranapiacaba Range. In 2005 the total population was estimated at 1300.

Several species and subspecies of woolly monkey (Lagothrix) are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting for food. Elliot’s woolly monkey (L. lugens) is found patchily in both lowland and higher-elevation forests throughout the Andes of Colombia and possibly western Venezuela. Poeppig’s woolly monkey (L. poeppigii) occurs in northern Peru, northwestern Brazil (Amazonas and Acre) and possibly western Ecuador. Humboldt’s woolly monkey (L. lagotricha) ranges over a relatively wide area of south-eastern Colombia, northwestern Brazil, north-eastern Ecuador, and north-eastern Peru. The grey woolly monkey (L. cana) is divided into at least two subspecies. The eastern grey woolly monkey (L. c. cana) is found across much of western and central Brazil and in adjacent areas of eastern Peru. The western grey woolly monkey (L. c. tschudii) is confined to south-eastern Peru. An isolated population discovered from Madidi National Park in northwestern Bolivia (La Paz department) likely represents an as-yet undescribed subspecies.

The variegated spider monkey (Ateles hybridus) is found patchily in northern Colombia and western Venezuela. The white-fronted spider monkey (A. belzebuth) is found widely but patchily in central and southern Colombia, central and southern Venezuela, western Ecuador, northern Peru, and north-western Brazil (Amazonas and Roraima). Linnaeus’ spider monkey (A. paniscus) is found in Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, and Brazil (Amapá, Pará, and Roraima). All are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting for food.

The Maranhão howler (Alouatta ululata) is a type of monkey confined to dry forest, mangroves, and open, transitional Babaçu palm forest in north-eastern coastal Brazil (Ceará, Maranhão, and Piauí). The red and black howler (A. guariba) is divided into two subspecies. The northern red and black howler (A. g. guariba) is confined to a relatively small area of eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Bahia, and possibly Espírito Santo). The southern red and black howler (A. g. clamitans) occurs over a wide area of eastern and south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul) and north-eastern Argentina (Misiones province). All are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

Several capuchin monkeys of the genus Cebus are threatened by habitat destruction, hunting, and collection for use as pets. The shock-headed white-fronted capuchin (C. cuscinus) is found in south-eastern Peru, north-western Bolivia, and possibly western Brazil (Acre). The varied whitefronted capuchin (C. versicolor) has an imprecisely known range centred upon the middle Magdalena River Valley of north-western Colombia, where it lives in both humid and dry forests. Hershkovitz’s white-fronted capuchin (C. cesarae) occurs from the upper Magdalena River Valley to the eastern and southern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in north-western Colombia (Cesar, Magdalena, and La Guajira departments). The Santa Marta white-fronted capuchin (C. malitiosus) is confined to forests near the northwestern base of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in coastal northern Colombia (Magdalena, Cesar, and La Guajira departments). The Perijá white-fronted capuchin (C. leucocephalus) is found in northern Colombia and western Venezuela.

The blond capuchin (Sapajus flavius) is a type of monkey confined to forest and mangrove fragments mostly surrounded by sugar cane plantations in coastal north-eastern Brazil (Alagoas, Paraíba, and Pernambuco), where the total population is around 180. The golden-bellied capuchin (S. xanthosternos) is now confined to an area of eastern Brazil (southeastern Bahia), although it is likely that its range formerly extended to parts of Sergipe and Minas Gerais. The largest continuous area of forest remaining within its range lies within the Una Biological Reserve. There is a small captive population. The crested capuchin (S. robustus) is found patchily in eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Bahia, and Espírito Santo). Both are seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The San Martín titi (Plecturocebus oenanthe) is a type of monkey confined to a small area of northern Peru (San Martín department). The Beni titi (P. modestus) is confined to a small area of north-western Bolivia (Beni department). The Olalla brothers’ titi (P. olallae) is confined to a small area of northwestern Bolivia (Beni department), where it lives in gallery forests and adjacent forested islands within the Yacuma and Manique rivers. All are seriously threatened by habitat loss and hunting.

Coimbra-Filho’s masked titi (Callicebus coimbrai) and the blond masked titi (C. barbarabrownae) both occur in small, scattered populations within a small area of eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia and Sergipe), where they are threatened by loss of habitat.

Brumback’s night monkey (Aotus brumbacki) is a nocturnal species found in north-central Colombia where it lives in a variety of habitats and elevations. The yellow-bellied night monkey (A. griseimembra) occurs in western and northwestern Colombia and western Venezuela. Both are threatened by deforestation and, to a lesser extent, hunting and collection for use as pets.

The buffy-headed marmoset (Callithrix flaviceps) is confined to a small area of eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais). The buffy-eared marmoset (C. aurita) is found in both lowland and montane forests in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo). Both are threatened by loss of habitat, competition and hybridization with invasive species, disease, and occasional live capture for the pet trade.

The white-footed tamarin (Saguinus leucopus) is confined to north-western Colombia, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) was historically very abundant in rainforests and wetland areas throughout the Amazonian Region, but has been drastically reduced to a few scattered strongholds by hunting and habitat destruction.

The marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus), the largest of the South American deer, was formerly widespread in swamps, wet grasslands, and temporarily inundated forests. It has been much persecuted both for food as well as for use in ‘traditional medicine’ (supposed aphrodisiacs are prepared from the antlers), and now occurs only patchily in east-central and north-eastern Argentina, west-central and southern Brazil, Paraguay, south-eastern Peru, and eastern Bolivia. It has been extirpated from Uruguay.

The Pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) was once common across a variety of grassland areas across southern South America but has been much reduced by habitat destruction, hunting, and diseases transmitted by domestic livestock. The three generally recognized subspecies are now restricted to isolated pockets within their former ranges. The nominate form (O. b. bezoarticus) ranges from eastern and central Brazil south of the Amazon River into Uruguay. The white-bellied Pampas deer (O. b. leucogaster) is found from south-western Brazil to south-eastern Bolivia south to Paraguay and northern Argentina.

The small red brocket deer (Mazama bororo) is found in south-eastern coastal Brazil (Paraná, Santa Catarina, and São Paulo). The pygmy brocket deer (M. nana) is found patchily in north-eastern Argentina, south-eastern Paraguay, and south-eastern Brazil. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) is the largest canid in South America. Still widespread in more open habitats throughout the central part of the continent east of the Andes and south of the Amazon Rainforest, it has nevertheless become uncommon in many areas due to habitat destruction, human persecution, roadkill, and pathogens contracted from domestic animals.

The southern tiger cat (Leopardus guttulus) is still found over a wide area of central and southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and north-eastern Argentina, where it was at one time heavily exploited for the fur trade. Some illegal hunting continues, and the species is additionally threatened by roadkill, poisoning, and habitat destruction.

The maned three-toed sloth (Bradypus torquatus) is found in montane and lowland Atlantic coastal forest patches in eastern and south-eastern Brazil.

The giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus) is still found widely, if patchily, throughout much of northern South America east of the Andes and south to northern Argentina. While they primarily inhabit open habitats (with cerrado grasslands covering about a quarter of their range) they can also be found in lowland forest edge. Nevertheless, they are everywhere rare due to a combination of hunting and habitat destruction. The animals are sometimes also captured for use as pets or to be sold as ‘living fossils’ on the black market, but do not usually survive long in captivity.

The hairy long-nosed armadillo (Dasypus pilosus) is known only from a few localities in western Peru (San Martín, La Libertad, Huánuco, Junín, and Amazonas departments).

The Brazilian three-banded armadillo (Tolypeutes tricinctus) is found in caatinga and cerrado areas of eastern Brazil, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Venezuelan lowland cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus varynaensis) is known only from a few localities in north-western Venezuela (Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guárico states).

Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azarae) is a type of rodent still found over a wide area of southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and north-western Argentina, but has been extirpated from many areas due to overhunting.

The grey-bellied akodont (Brucepattersonius griserufescens) is a type of rodent known only from a few specimens collected from south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro).

Agricola’s gracile mouse opossum (Cryptonanus agricolai) is known only from very few records over a wide area of eastern Brazil. It is thought to be threatened by habitat destruction.

Karimi’s fat-tailed mouse opossum (Thylamys karimii) is found over a wide area of central and eastern Brazil, but is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat.

The bare-tailed armoured tree rat (Pattonomys occasius) is known only from a few specimens collected from the western Amazon in eastern Ecuador and northern Peru.

The red-nosed Atlantic tree rat (Phyllomys brasiliensis) is historically known from two localities in south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais), but now appears to have been extirpated from the former state.

The dusky armoured tree rat (Makalata obscura) is known only from its vague type description. While the locality is unknown, it is thought to be somewhere in north-eastern Brazil (Pará and/or Maranhão).

Pittier’s crab-eating rat (Ichthyomys pittieri) is a semiaquatic species known only from a few scattered localities within the coastal cordilleras and adjacent hills of northern Venezuela.

The Venezuelan fish-eating rat (Neusticomys venezuelae) is known only from a few localities over a relatively wide area of Venezuela and Guyana. It is threatened by habitat destruction and water pollution.

The buffy-sided rice rat (Euryoryzomys lamia) is known only from a few localities in east-central Brazil (Minas Gerais and Goiás).

The greater Wilfred’s mouse (Wilfredomys oenax) is a naturally rare species found in tropical and subtropical lowland forest patches throughout much of south-eastern Brazil and Uruguay.

The Ecuadorian spiny pocket mouse (Heteromys teleus) is a rare species confined to a few diverse and isolated areas of north-western Ecuador. Its habitat is highly fragmented due to agricultural expansion.

The soricine akodont (Brucepattersonius soricinus) is a type of rodent known only from a few specimens collected over a relatively wide area of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo and Paraná).

The tiny yellow bat (Rhogeessa minutilla) is found patchily over a relatively wide area of western Colombia and northern Venezuela, including Margarita Island.

Behn’s big-eared bat (Glyphonycteris behnii) is known only from six specimens collected over a wide area of south-western Brazil. Much of its habitat has already been converted for use in agriculture.

Marinkelle’s sword-nosed bat (Lonchorhina marinkellei) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Colombia. Fernandez’s sword-nosed bat (L. fernandezi) is known only from a small area of south-central Venezuela. The Orinoco sword-nosed bat (L. orinocensis) is found sporadically in southern Venezuela and eastern Colombia.

Dekeyser’s long-tongued bat (Lonchophylla dekeyseri) is found widely but patchily in eastern and central Brazil and eastern Bolivia. It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The southern long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris curasoae) is found over a wide area of Colombia and Venezuela as well as on Margarita Island, Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. It is threatened mainly by vandalism of its roosting caves.

The greater rhea (Rhea americana) is an ostrich-like species still found over a wide area of eastern and southern South America, but which has decreased considerably due to hunting for its meat and skins as well as habitat destruction. The northern greater rhea (R. a. americana) is found in the campos of north-eastern and eastern Brazil.

The crowned solitary eagle (Buteogallus coronatus) is found patchily over a very wide area of central South America (Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina). It is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

The white-necked hawk (Buteogallus lacernulatus) is confined to isolated forest patches across a relatively wide area of coastal eastern Brazil.

The white-winged guan (Penelope albipennis) historically occurred althoughout south-western Ecuador and northwestern Peru, but is now confined to a few localities within the latter country (Lambayeque, Cajamarca, and Piura departments), where the total population is thought to be around 200. The chestnut-bellied guan (P. ochrogaster) is found widely but patchily within east-central Brazil. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

The white-crested guan (Penelope pileata) is a large terrestrial bird still found over a relatively wide area of north-central Brazil south of the Amazon River. It is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat.

The wattled guan (Aburria aburri) is found widely but patchily across north-western South America, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

Curassows of the genus Crax are a group of large, heavybodied, ground-feeding birds that are highly vulnerable to habitat destruction and hunting pressure. The blue-billed curassow (C. alberti) historically occurred throughout northwestern Colombia but is now confined to a few scattered populations. The Belém curassow (C. pinima) was formerly known from coastal north-eastern Brazil in Pará and Maranhão but likely survives only in the area of the Gurupi Biological Reserve within the latter state. The bare-faced curasow (C. fasciolata) is divided into three subspecies. The fasciated bare-faced curasow (C. f. fasciolata) is found in Paraguay, south-central Brazil, and north-eastern Argentina. Gray’s barefaced curasow (C. f. grayi) is confined to eastern Bolivia. Pelzeln’s bare-faced curasow (C. f. pinima) is found in northcentral and north-eastern Brazil. The black curassow (C. alector) is divided into two subspecies. The western black curassow (C. a. alector) is found in eastern Colombia and parts of Venezuela south of the Orinoco River. The eastern black curassow (C. a. erythrognatha) is found in extreme eastern Venezuela, the Guianas, and northern Brazil.

The black tinamou (Tinamus osgoodi) is a type of stocky ground bird divided into two subspecies. Osgood’s black tinamou (T. o. osgoodi) is found patchily in central and southeastern Peru (Cusco, Puno, Madre de Dios, and Huánuco departments). The grey tinamou (T. tao) is, as a species, found widely but very disjunctly along the eastern slopes of the Andes and in Brazil’s cerrado (dry savanna woodlands). The nominate form (T. t. tao) occurs in north-central Brazil, eastern Peru, and north-western Bolivia. The north-western grey tinamou (T. t. larensis) occurs in the montane forests of northern Colombia and north-western Venezuela. The north-eastern grey tinamou (T. t. septentrionalis) occurs in north-eastern Venezuela and possibly north-western Guyana. Klee’s grey tinamou (T. t. kleei) occurs in south-central Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, and western Brazil. All are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

The dwarf tinamou (Taoniscus nanus) is a partridge-like bird currently confined to isolated and widely spaced protected areas in central and south-eastern Brazil (Goiás, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso do Sul, Tocantins, São Paulo, and Distrito Federal). The range historically extended to Paraná state and, marginally, into southern Paraguay and northern Argentina as well.

The lesser nothura (Nothura minor) is a type of tinamou known only from a few scattered grassland and scrubland localities in south-central Brazil and eastern Paraguay.

The rufous-faced crake (Laterallus xenopterus) is a type of rail known only from a handful of localities over a wide area of south-central Brazil, northern Bolivia, and Paraguay. The rusty-flanked crake (L. levraudi) is found disjunctly in north-western Venezuela, mainly in coastal areas. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.

The glaucous macaw (Anodorhynchus glaucus) was historically found in the savannas and light woodlands of northern Argentina, southern Brazil, southern Paraguay, and northeastern Uruguay, where it underwent a severe decline as a result of hunting, trapping and habitat destruction. Last recorded in the 1960s, it is likely extinct but may still survive in remote areas. A related species, the hyacinth macaw (A. hyacinthinus), is the largest flying parrot. It is found patchily in central and eastern South America where it is threatened by habitat destruction and trapping for the international pet trade.

The blue-throated macaw (Ara glaucogularis) is confined to a small area of north-central Bolivia. Long hunted by indigenous people for its feathers, it remains seriously threatened due to illegal capture for the international pet trade. The military macaw (A. militaris), previously discussed under Central America, has two subspecies found patchily within the Amazonian Region. The nominate form (A. m. militaris) occurs in parts of north-western and south-western Colombia, north-central Ecuador, and northern Peru. The southern military macaw (A. m. boliviana) occurs in parts of southeastern Peru, western and central Bolivia, and north-western Argentina.

Several species of Amazon parrot (Amazona) are threatened by loss of habitat and collection for the international pet trade. The red-spectacled Amazon (A. pretrei) is confined to a few scattered areas of south-eastern Brazil (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), with occasional records of vagrants from north-eastern Argentina and south-eastern Paraguay. The yellow-shouldered Amazon (A. barbadensis) occurs in seven isolated subpopulations in northern Venezuela and on the islands of Margarita, Blanquilla, Curaçao (where it was reintroduced in the 1980s), and Bonaire. The species was extirpated from Aruba around 1950. The red-browed Amazon (A. rhodocorytha) is found within a handful of widely scattered Atlantic Forest fragments in eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and Alagoas). The red-tailed Amazon (A. brasiliensis) is confined to a narrow coastal strip of forest fragments and mangroves in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catarina). The vinaceous-breasted Amazon (A. vinacea) is a notably rare species found widely but patchily in northeastern Argentina, eastern Paraguay, and eastern and southeastern Brazil.

The sun parakeet (Aratinga solstitialis), known more commonly within the bird trade as the sun conure, is confined to a relatively small area of northern Brazil (Roraima) and adjacent Guyana. Relatively common up until the 1970s, it has since suffered from heavy trapping pressure and is now very scarce or absent across large parts of its former range.

Todd’s parakeet (Pyrrhura caeruleiceps) is largely confined to mountainous areas of north-western Colombia (La Guarija, Cesar, and Norte de Santander departments) and western Venezuela (Zulia state). Snethlage’s parakeet (P. snethlageae) is found disjunctly in central and western Brazil (Amazonas, Pará, and Mato Grosso) and in adjacent areas of northern Bolivia (Beni and Santa Cruz departments). Both are threatened by loss of habitat and capture for the pet trade.

The brown-backed parrotlet (Touit melanonotus) is found patchily in south-eastern Brazil (Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Paraná). The golden-tailed parrotlet (T. surdus) is found patchily across the length of eastern and south-eastern Brazil. The scarlet-shouldered parrotlet (T. huetii) is a naturally rare, nomadic species that occurs widely across northern South America but is everywhere threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.

The Ariel toucan (Ramphastos ariel) ranges widely south of the Amazon in Brazil, where it occurs east from the Tapajós River in Pará, Maranhão, and Piauí, and also, disjunctly, within the Atlantic Forest from eastern Pernambuco south to Santa Catarina. The red-billed toucan (R. tucanus) is found from eastern Venezuela through Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana into north-central and north-eastern Brazil. The yellow-ridged toucan (R. culminatus) has a large range across much of Amazonia from Venezuela south through Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and western and central Brazil into Bolivia. The channel-billed toucan (R. vitellinus) is found from eastern Colombia through Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, as well as the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, into northern Amazonian Brazil (Amazonas, Roraima, Pará, and Amapá). Despite their extensive ranges all are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

The eastern red-necked aracari (Pteroglossus bitorquatus) is a toucan-like bird divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (P. b. bitorquatus) is found in north-eastern Brazil between the Tocantins River and Maranhão, including the island of Marajó. Reichenow’s eastern red-necked aracari (P. b. reichenowi) is found in north-central Brazil between the Tapajós and Tocantins rivers and south as far as northern Mato Grosso. The western red-necked aracari (P. sturmii) is found from central Brazil south of the Amazon to northern and eastern Bolivia. All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The ruddy pigeon (Patagioenas subvinacea), previously discussed, has a number of subspecies threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The Paria ruddy pigeon (P. s. peninsularis) is confined to the Paria Peninsula in north-eastern Venezuela (Sucre state). Zulia’s ruddy pigeon (P. s. zuliae) is found in north-eastern Colombia and western Venezuela. The purpletinted ruddy pigeon (P. s. purpuretincta) ranges from southeastern Colombia through southern Venezuela into Suriname, Guyana, and French Guiana. The Bogatá ruddy pigeon (P. s. bogotensis) occurs from the Andes of north-western Colombia through eastern Peru into western Amazonian Brazil and north-eastern Bolivia.

The purple-winged ground dove (Claravis geoffroyi) was reported to be fairly common at the beginning of the twentieth century, when it was known to occur in eastern Brazil (Bahia), north-eastern Argentina and eastern Paraguay. Loss of habitat combined with collection for the pet trade have resulted in a massive decline. In recent years it is known only from a few scattered reports, most recently in 2017, and it is feared that the species is on the point of extinction.

Several subspecies of rufous-vented ground cuckoo (Neomorphus geoffroyi), previously discussed, are threatened by loss of habitat. The nominate form (N. g. geoffroyi) is known only from coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia), where it may be extinct. The melodious rufous-vented ground cuckoo (N. g. dulcis) is confined to a few areas of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo), where it is very rare. The Amazonian rufous-vented ground cuckoo (N. g. squamiger) is found widely but patchily across the Amazon basin of Brazil into eastern Peru and northern Bolivia.

The three-toed jacamar (Jacamaralcyon tridactyla) is a kingfisher-like bird from eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Bahia). There are historical records from Espírito Santo, São Paulo, and Paraná as well, demonstrating that its range has undergone a major contraction most likely due to deforestation.

The helmeted woodpecker (Celeus galeatus) is a rare species found patchily in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul) and adjacent areas of south-eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina (Misiones province).

The white-bellied piculet (Picumnus spilogaster) is a type of woodpecker divided into three geographically isolated subspecies. The nominate form (P. s. spilogaster) is known from northern and southern Guyana and in far north-western Brazil (Roraima and Amazonas), and likely also occurs in northern Suriname and French Guiana, although there are no definite records from those countries. The Orinoco white-bellied piculet (P. s. orinocensis) is found in central and north-eastern Venezuela. The pallid white-bellied piculet (P. s. pallidius) is confined to a small area of coastal north-eastern Brazil (Pará). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The white-mantled barbet (Capito hypoleucus) is a type of passerine bird historically found across much of north-western Colombia, but now much reduced by loss of habitat. The nominate form (C. h. hypoleucus) is confined to a few scattered localities within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of Bolívar and Antioquia departments. Carriker’s white-mantled barbet (C. h. carrikeri) is confined to Antioquia department.

The black-backed tanager (Tangara peruviana) is confined to coastal south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul).

The orange-throated tanager (Wetmorethraupis sterrhopteron) is known only from a few lowland and foothill forest localities in south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province) and north-western Peru (Amazonas department).

The black-masked tanager (Coryphaspiza melanotis) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (C. m melanotis) is found widely in south-eastern Peru, northern Bolivia, central and south-eastern Brazil (with a further small, disjunct population in coastal eastern Brazil), eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina. It is declining everywhere, however, due to loss of its grassland habitat.

Several tanagers of the genus Sporophila are threatened by loss of habitat and, in some cases, illegal capture for the cagebird trade. The chestnut seedeater (S. cinnamomea) and the marsh seedeater (S. palustris) both breed in north-eastern Argentina, parts of Uruguay, south-eastern Paraguay, and southernmost Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), from where they winter over a wide area of central and south-eastern Brazil. Temminck’s seedeater (S. falcirostris) and the buffy-fronted seedeater (S. frontalis) are both found widely but very disjunctly in north-eastern Argentina, south-eastern Paraguay, and eastern and south-eastern Brazil. The Tropeiro seedeater (S. beltoni) is found in eastern and south-eastern Brazil.

The saffron-cowled blackbird (Xanthopsar flavus) was historically found over a wide area of southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and north-eastern Argentina, but has undergone significant declines owing to a variety of threats. A colonial breeder, only a small number of breeding sites are known.

Forbes’ blackbird (Anumara forbesi) is known from two widely separated areas of eastern Brazil (Pernambuco and Alagoas in the north, and over 1400 km to the south in Minas Gerais). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The bronze-brown cowbird (Molothrus armenti) is confined to coastal north-western Colombia (Bolívar, Atlántico, and Magdalena departments), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Bananal antbird (Cercomacra ferdinandi) has one of the smallest ranges of any Amazonian bird, being confined to the wetlands of the Araguaia-Tocantins basin of east-central Brazil. The Rio Branco antbird (C. carbonaria) is largely confined to dense thickets along the edge of the Branco River in northern Brazil (Roraima) and adjacent south-western Guyana, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The scalloped antbird (Myrmoderus ruficauda) is divided into two subspecies found disjunctly in coastal eastern Brazil. The southern scalloped antbird (M. r. ruficauda) is known from a few localities in Espíritu Santo and Bahia. The northern scalloped antbird (M. r. soror) is known from a few localities in Pernambuco, Alagoas, and Paraíba.

The masked antpitta (Hylopezus auricularis) is currently known from five localities in northern Bolivia (Pando department).

The Bahia antwren (Herpsilochmus pileatus) is confined to a few scattered localities along a narrow coastal strip of eastern Brazil (Bahia). The pectoral antwren (H. pectoralis) is found disjunctly in scattered pockets within eastern and northeastern Brazil (Maranhão, Rio Grande do Norte, Sergipe, Paraíba, and Bahia). Both are threatened by loss of habitat. Several subspecies of yellow-breasted antwren (H. axillaris) are found in isolated areas throughout the Andes, and will be discussed below.

The band-tailed antwren (Myrmotherula urosticta) is confined to a few scattered Atlantic Forest fragments in coastal eastern and south-eastern Brazil (Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and possibly Minas Gerais). The Guianan streaked antwren (M. surinamensis) remains widespread in northern South America (Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, and northern Brazil). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The marsh antwren (Formicivora paludicola) is confined to a small number of wetlands areas within the headwaters of the Tietê and Paraíba do Sol rivers in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). The slender-billed antwren (F. acutirostris) is found sporadically in coastal south-eastern Brazil (Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The lined antshrike (Thamnophilus tenuepunctatus) is found along the edge of the Cordillera Oriental where it lives in a variety of habitats and elevations. The nominate form (T. t. tenuepunctatus) occurs in north-central Colombia (Norte de Santander, Cundinamarca and Meta departments). The Ecuadorian lined antshrike (T. t. tenuifasciatus) occurs in south-central Colombia (Putomayo department) and eastern Ecuador. Berlepsch’s lined antshrike (T. t. berlepschi) occurs in south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province) and north-eastern Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca, and San Martín departments). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The white-bearded antshrike (Biatas nigropectus) is a naturally rare species known only from a few scattered areas of bamboo forest in south-eastern Brazil and north-eastern Argentina (Misiones province).

The black-headed berryeater (Carpornis melanocephala) is a type of passerine bird confined to sporadic coastal dry and moist forest fragments in eastern Brazil (Alagoas, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Paraná). Most populations live within protected areas.

The white-winged cotinga (Xipholena atropurpurea) is a passerine bird found patchily in eastern and south-eastern coastal Brazil (Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro).

The bare-throated bellbird (Procnias nudicollis) is still found over a wide area of eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina, but has undergone significant declines due to loss of habitat and heavy trapping for the cage-bird trade.

The black-capped piprites (Piprites pileata) is a rare type of passerine bird found patchily in south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul) and north-eastern Argentina (Misiones province). It is known from a number of protected areas.

The Atlantic royal flycatcher (Onychorhynchus swainsoni) is a naturally rare species confined to Atlantic Forest patches in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catarina, with an additional old record possibly originating from Goiás).

The lemon-browed flycatcher (Conopias cinchoneti) is divided into two subspecies. The southern lemon-browed flycatcher (C. c. cinchoneti) is found in the Andes region of south-western Colombia central Ecuador and northern and central Peru. The northern lemon-browed flycatcher (C. c. icterophrys) is found disjunctly in western Venezuela, western Colombia, and extreme north-western Ecuador. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The cock-tailed tyrant (Alectrurus tricolor) is a type of flycatcher found widely but patchily in northern Bolivia, south-central and south-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and (at least formerly) north-eastern Argentina. It has been much reduced by loss of its grassland habitat.

The sharp-tailed tyrant (Culicivora caudacuta) is still found over a wide area of south-central Brazil, northern Bolivia, south-eastern Paraguay, and north-eastern Argentina, but is everywhere threatened by habitat destruction.

The fork-tailed tody-tyrant (Hemitriccus furcatus) is found very patchily in eastern and south-eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo). The buff-breasted tody-tyrant (H. mirandae) is confined to two disjunct area of north-eastern Brazil (Paraíba, Pernambuco, and Alagoas). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The red-billed tyrannulet (Zimmerius cinereicapilla) is found widely but patchily in the foothills of Ecuador (where it is very rare), Peru, and north-western Bolivia.

The russet-winged spadebill (Platyrinchus leucoryphus) is a type of flycatcher found over a relatively wide area of southeastern Brazil, north-eastern Argentina, and eastern Paraguay, but is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat.

The ash-browed spinetail (Cranioleuca curtata) is a type of ovenbird divided into three subspecies. The northern ashbrowed spinetail (C. c. curtata) is found in west-central Colombia (Santandar, Boyacá, Tolima, Cundinamarca, and Huila departments). The central ash-browed spinetail (C. c. cisandina) is found in south-western Colombia (Caquetá and Putumayo departments) through central Ecuador to north-western Peru (Piura and Amazonas departments). The southern ash-browed spinetail (C. c. debilis) is found from central Peru to central Bolivia. All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The rufous-brown solitaire (Cichlopsis leucogenys) is a type of passerine bird found patchily in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia and Espírito Santo).

The campo miner (Geositta poeciloptera) is a type of passerine bird still found over a wide area of south-central Brazil and, marginally, north-eastern Bolivia. The species may have formerly occurred in Paraguay as well. It has declined due to loss of habitat.

The Ceará leaftosser (Sclerurus cearensis) is a type of passerine bird found widely but patchily in north-eastern Brazil.

The black and white monjita (Xolmis dominicanus) is a type of passerine bird found widely but patchily in southeastern Brazil, Uruguay, and north-eastern Argentina.

The marsh tapaculo (Scytalopus iraiensis) is a rare type of passerine bird found patchily in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, and possibly São Paulo).

Stresemann’s bristlefront (Merulaxis stresemanni) is a type of passerine bird long known only from just two specimens collected in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia), the first in the 1830s and the second in 1945. In 1995 a third was discovered near the Una Biological Reserve. More recently the species has been found in a strip of dry forest within the Jequitinhonha Valley of Minas Gerais, which was later cleared for agriculture. One of the rarest birds in the world, the total population is thought to be between 10 and 15 individuals.

The recurve-billed bushbird (Clytoctantes alixii) was long known only from four specimens collected from north-western Venezuela and north-western Colombia and only seen once in life, at an army ant swarm in 1965. In 2007, however, it was rediscovered in Venezuela and has since also been found in Colombia. The population is believed to be very small.

The eastern barred woodcreeper (Dendrocolaptes punctipectus) is found over a relatively wide area of north-western Venezuela and north-western Colombia, but is everywhere declining due to deforestation.

The great-billed seed-finch (Sporophila maximiliani) is a very rare species with an extremely disjunct range across the Amazonian Region in northern Bolivia, eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and throughout Brazil. It has declined rapidly everywhere due to loss of habitat and trapping for use as cage birds.

The yellow-faced siskin (Spinus yarrellii) is a type of finch known from two widely disjunct areas some 3500 km apart (northern Venezuela and north-eastern Brazil). It has undergone a massive decline due to high-volume collection for the cage-bird trade, and may also be threatened by pesticides. The red siskin (S. cucullatus) was historically widespread and common in northern Colombia, northern Venezuela, and Guyana but is now extremely rare throughout its range, which has become quite fragmented due to overcollection pressure. A natural population on Trinidad is believed to be extirpated, there having been no sightings since 1960, while an introduced one on Puerto Rico has undergone a marked decline.

The chestnut-bellied hummingbird (Saucerottia castaneiventris) is confined to the San Lucas Range and the drier parts of the Magdalena Valley in north-western Colombia (Bolívar, Santandar, and Boyaca departments). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The sapphire-bellied hummingbird (Lepidopyga lilliae) is found disjunctly in coastal northern Colombia (Magdalena, Bolívar, Sucre, Córdoba, and Antioquia departments), where it lives in mangroves and shrubby areas.

The scissor-tailed hummingbird (Hylonympha macrocerca) is confined to the Paria Peninsula in north-eastern coastal Venezuela (Sucre state). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The long-tailed woodnymph (Thalurania watertonii) is a type of hummingbird confined to eastern Brazil (Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, and, at least formerly, northern Bahia). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The coppery-chested jacamar (Galbula pastazae) is a type of hummingbird largely endemic to central Ecuador, although there are records from a single locality in each of far southern Colombia (Putumayo department) and far northern Peru (Amazonas department). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The dot-eared coquette (Lophornis gouldii) is a type of hummingbird found over a wide area of northern and central Brazil, extending marginally into eastern Bolivia. It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The royal sunangel (Heliangelus regalis) is a rare type of hummingbird found patchily in north-western Peru and south-eastern Ecuador. The Bogotá sunangel (H. zusii) is a controversial species known only from a single, highly distinctive skin collected from an undefined locality (most likely in Colombia) in 1909. The possibility that it is merely a hybrid cannot be discounted.

The coppery thorntail (Discosura letitiae) is a type of hummingbird known only from two specimens collected during the mid-nineteenth century from an unknown locality in Bolivia.

Gould’s piedtail (Phlogophilus hemileucurus) is a type of hummingbird found in the Andean foothills of south-western Colombia, central Ecuador, and north-eastern Peru, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The yellow-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis denticulatus) is a large species found throughout much of the Amazonian Region, but is everywhere threatened by collection for use as food or pets.

The ringed spinytail iguana (Morunasaurus annularis) is a specialized burrowing species known only from a few lowland and lower montane localities in south-western Colombia and north-western Ecuador.

Wiegmann’s tree lizard (Anisolepis undulatus) is a littleknown species confined to south-eastern Brazil, Uruguay, and north-eastern Argentina.

Tschudi’s ground lizard (Tropidurus arenarius) is known only from its original collection in 1845 from an undefined locality in south-western Peru.

The Peruvian bush anole (Polychrus peruvianus) is found in both rainforest and dry forest in north-western Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca, and Piura departments), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

Hussam’s mussurana (Clelia hussami) is a type of venomous snake known only from a few specimens collected in south-eastern Brazil (Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina).

The eleven-striped blind snake (Epictia undecimstriata) is only known from its original collection during the early nineteenth century from an undefined locality in Bolivia.

The Bahia Frost’s toad (Frostius erythrophthalmus) is known from four localities in eastern Brazil (southern Bahia).

Eugenio’s tree frog (Xenohyla eugenioi) is known from three localities in eastern Brazil (southern Bahia and northeastern Minas Gerais).

Lutz’s tree frog (Boana claresignata) and the clepsydra tree frog (B. clepsydra) are both confined to the Sea Ridge Range (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo).

The torrent tree frog (Hyloscirtus torrenticola) is found patchily in south-western Colombia (Huila, Caquetá and Putumayo departments) and north-central Ecuador (Sucumbíos and Napo provinces).

The Bolívar snouted tree frog (Scinax danae) occurs in both lowland and montane forest within a small area of eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state).

The Bocaina snouted tree frog (Ololygon ariadne) is known only from a single protected area on the border between Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo states in south-eastern coastal Brazil. Faivovich’s snouted tree frog (O. aromothyella) is known for certain only from three localities in north-eastern Argentina (Misiones province).

The whistling canebrake tree frog (Aplastodiscus sibilatus) is largely confined to a small area of north-eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia and Alagoas), with an additional disjunct population found further to the north-west.

The Mazaruni yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus grandisonae) is known only from its original collection in 1966 from an undefined locality in Guyana.

Lutz’s tropical bullfrog (Adenomera lutzi) is known only from three localities in west-central Guyana.

Walker’s marsupial frog (Gastrotheca walkeri) is confined to a few montane and lowland localities in northern coastal Venezuela. The brown marsupial frog (G. dendronastes) is found patchily within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of western Colombia. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and, possibly, chytridiomycosis.

Vanzolini’s coloured leaf frog (Phrynomedusa vanzolinii) is known only from two disjunct localities in coastal southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo).

Müller’s spiny-thumb frog (Crossodactylus aeneus) is confined to a small area of coastal south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo). The disparate spiny-thumb frog (C. dispar) is known from São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas Gerais.

The Aragua giant glass frog (Vitreorana antisthenesi) is confined to a few montane and lowland localities within a small area of northern coastal Venezuela, where it is threatened by loss of habitat. Castroviejo’s giant glass frog (V. castroviejoi) is confined to the Paria Peninsula in northeastern coastal Venezuala (Sucre state). Helena’s giant glass frog (V. helenae) is found patchily in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state) and central Guyana.

The eastern glass frog (Hyalinobatrachium orientale) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (H. o. orientale) is found patchily within a small area of northern Venezuela (Paria Peninsula and the Lema Range).

The Marañón poison dart frog (Excidobates mysteriosus) is known only from a few localities within a small area of north-western Peru (Cajamarca and Amazonas departments).

Lamarca’s poison dart frog (Mannophryne lamarcai) is known only from three localities within a small area of north-western Venezuela (Falcón and Zulia states). Rivero’s poison dart frog (M. riveroi) is confined to the Paria Peninsula in north-eastern coastal Venezuela (Sucre state). The collared poison dart frog (M. collaris) is confined to a small area of western Venezuela (Barinas state). La Marca’s poison dart frog (M. cordilleriana) is confined to a few localities in western Venezuela (Mérida and Barinas states). The Trujillo poison dart frog (M. trujillensis) is confined to a small area of western Venezuela (Trujillo state).

Summers’ poison dart frog (Ranitomeya summersi) is confined to a small area of north-central Peru (San Martín department), where it lives in rocky pre-montane forests. The fantastic poison dart frog (R. fantastica) is confined to a small area of north-central Peru (San Martín and Loreto departments). Both are threatened by loss of habitat and collection for the international pet trade.

Vergel’s rocket frog (Hyloxalus vergeli) is confined to central-western Colombia (Cundinamarca, Tolima, and Huila departments). The shabby rocket frog (H. sordidatus) is known only from two localities along the eastern base of the Andes in north-western Peru (Amazonas and San Martín departments). The sky-blue rocket frog (H. azureiventris) is confined to a small area of north-central Peru (San Martín department).

The Amazonas rocket frog (Colostethus poecilonotus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Amazonas department).

The Río Cerranayacu robber frog (Pristimantis ardalonychus) is known only from a small area of north-western Peru (San Martín department). The Bagua robber frog (P. metabates) is known only from two small, disjunct, and ecologically diverse localities in south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora-Chinchipe province) and north-western Peru (Amazonas department). The deceptive robber frog (P. fallax) is found in northwestern Colombia (Antioquia, Tolima, and Caldas departments). The two-cloud robber frog (P. bicumulus) is found widely but patchily in northern coastal Venezuela (Miranda, Vargas, Aragua, and Yaracuy states, and the Distrito Capital). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Sambaqui robber frog (Ischnocnema sambaqui) is known only from a few localities in south-eastern Brazil (Paraná).

The São Vicente robber frog (Oreobates crepitans) is known only from a single locality in west-central Brazil (Mato Grosso).

The nimble saddleback frog (Brachycephalus pernix) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Brazil (Paraná).

Moreira’s foam-nest frog (Physalaemus moreirae) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo state).

Cepeda’s cryptic forest frog (Allobates cepedai) is found patchily within the Cordillera Oriental and its foothills in north-central Colombia (Arauca, Casanare, and Meta departments). The Picachos cryptic forest frog (A. picachos) is known from a few disjunct localities in central and westcentral Colombia (Caquetá and Guaviare departments).

Heyer’s ditch frog (Leptodactylus pascoensis) is known only from three disjunct localities in central Peru. The Bahia ditch frog (L. viridis) is known only from two localities in eastern Brazil (Bahia).

Mehely’s humming frog (Chiasmocleis mehelyi) is known only from two localities in south-western Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul).

Reinhardt’s caecilian (Mimosiphonops reinhardti) is only known from a single specimen collected in 1878 from an undefined locality, believed to have been somewhere in eastern Brazil.

The Northern Andes

The northern or tropical Andes, as here defined, are comprised of five main cordilleras and a few associated ranges running through Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru (north and east of the Andean Plateau). The diversity of landscape includes snow-topped mountains down to lowland canyons and valleys, all supporting a wide range of biogeographic regions created by the changes in altitude. In general, tropical rainforests occupy the lower elevations (500–1500 m), cloud forests from 800 to 3500 m, and grasslands at the highest altitudes (3000–4800 m). Areas of dry forest are also to be found throughout the northern Andes, generally in the lower elevations and valleys. In terms of biodiversity, the region ranks among the most important on Earth. Unfortunately, it has also been home to human communities for thousands of years (most notably the Inca Empire), and virtually all of it has been transformed in some way.

The mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) is confined to Andean montane forests and páramos of Colombia, Ecuador, and northernmost Peru, where it has suffered serious declines owing to hunting and habitat destruction. The total population is estimated at less than 2500.

The Bricen’s red brocket deer (Mazama bricenii) is found patchily in the Andes of northern Colombia and western Venezuela. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. The dwarf red brocket deer (M. rufina) is found widely within the Andes of south-western Colombia, Ecuador, and northwestern Peru.

The northern pudú (Pudu mephistophiles), the world’s smallest deer, occupies a discontinuous and probably fragmented range in the montane forests and high-elevation grasslands of the Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, where it is threatened mainly by habitat destruction.

The lemurine night monkey (Aotus lemurinus) is a nocturnal species found throughout the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, but is everywhere threatened by hunting, collection for use in pharmaceutical research, and habitat destruction.

Creighton’s slender mouse opossum (Marmosops creightoni) is known only from a small area of western Bolivia (La Paz department), where it may be threatened by loss of habitat.

The aquatic fish-eating rat (Anotomys leander) is known only from three localities in northern Ecuador and an additional, disjunct one in central-western Colombia. It is threatened mainly by water pollution.

The unexpected cotton rat (Sigmodon inopinatus) is known only from a few high-elevation localities in southcentral Ecuador.

The Cauca climbing mouse (Rhipidomys caucensis) is known only from 12 specimens collected over a relatively wide area of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of north-western Colombia.

Thomas’ Oldfield mouse (Thomasomys pyrrhonotus) is found in southern Ecuador and north-western Peru. The woodland Oldfield mouse (T. hylophilus) is found in northern Colombia and north-western Venezuela. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Peruvian small-eared shrew (Cryptotis peruviensis) is known only from two specimens collected from high-elevation elfin forest in north-western Peru (Cajamarca department).

Isidor’s eagle (Spizaetus isidori) has an extensive but altitudinally narrow distribution throughout the northern Andes and a small total population. It is threatened mainly by habitat destruction.

Nicéforo’s yellow-billed pintail (Anas georgica niceforoi) was a type of dabbling duck historically found in the highaltitude grasslands and wetlands of the Andes in north-central Colombia. Last recorded in 1952, it is certainly extinct.

The yellow-eared parrot (Ognorhynchus icterotis) is a large, long-tailed species that formerly occurred in all three Andean cordilleras of Colombia and north-western Ecuador. It is highly dependent upon wax palms (Ceroxylon) for nesting, and has been greatly impacted by the annual harvesting of these trees for use in Palm Sunday rituals, as well as by hunting. The birds now appear to be confined to a few areas of the Cordillera Occidental and Central of Colombia, where the total number is thought to be around 1400.

The rusty-faced parrot (Hapalopsittaca amazonina) is divided into three subspecies found throughout much of the Northern Andes. They will be discussed below.

The spot-winged parrotlet (Touit stictopterus) is found widely but patchily in western Colombia, central Ecuador, and north-western Peru.

The Cauca guan (Penelope perspicax) is a large, arboreal bird that historically occurred within the Cauca River Valley and on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in south-western Colombia. By the 1980s the species was thought to be extinct due to loss of habitat and hunting pressure, but small, populations have since been found within Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Quindio, and Risaralda departments. The bearded guan (P. barbata) is found patchily in southern Ecuador and north-western Peru, where it too is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

The helmeted curassow (Pauxi pauxi) is divided into two subspecies found patchily throughout much of the northern Andes. They will be discussed below.

Hershkovitz’s black tinamou (Tinamus osgoodi hershkovitzi) is known from a few disjunct localities within the Andes of Colombia (Huila and Caquetá departments). Reports from Antioquia department and from northern Ecuador (Napo and Sucumbíos provinces) likely refer to this form as well. It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The black-fronted wood quail (Odontophorus atrifrons) is divided into three, widely separated subspecies, which will be discussed below.

Salvin’s pigeon (Patagioenas oenops) is found patchily in north-western Peru and extreme south-eastern Ecuador.

The Tolima dove (Leptotila conoveri) is known only from a few localities in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental of western Colombia.

The Colombian mountain grackle (Macroagelaius subalaris) is found patchily in north-central Colombia, where it is thought to be dependent upon montane oak forests, which are severely fragmented and declining in extent.

The spot-fronted swift (Cypseloides cherriei) appears to be widespread within the Andes of Colombia and northern Ecuador but is nevertheless known only from a few specimens and sight records.

Several species and subspecies of antpitta (Grallaria), elusive passerine birds, are threatened by loss of habitat. The Jocotoco antpitta (G. ridgelyi) is known only from a few small localities in south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province) and north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). The moustached antpitta (G. alleni) is divided into two subspecies. The Cordillera Central moustached antpitta (G. a. alleni) is known only from a few specimens collected from centralwestern Colombia (Quíndio and Risaralda departments), but may extend as far south as northern Ecuador. The Cordillera Oriental moustached antpitta (G. a. andaquiensis) is similarly known only from a few localities in western Colombia (Huila department) and northern Ecuador (Napo, Cotpaxi, and Pichincha provinces). An unknown subspecies is present in the Cordillera Occidental of north-western Colombia (Antioquia and Risaralda departments). The great antpitta (G. excelsa) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (G. e. excelsa) is found patchily in the Perijá Range and the Mérida Cordillera of northern Venezuela and adjacent northern Colombia. The giant antpitta (G. gigantea) is divided into three subspecies. The nominate form (G. g. gigantea) was historically widespread along the Cordillera Oriental of north-central and central Ecuador, although the only recent sightings are from Napo province. It may still survive within protected areas of Carchi and/or Tungurahua provinces. Lehmann’s giant antpitta (G. g. lehmanni) is known from a few historical as well as more recent records originating in south-western Colombia (Cauca, Huila, and possibly Nariño departments). The Cordillera Occidental giant antpitta (G. g. hylodroma) is known from a few localities in northwestern Ecuador (Pichincha, Cotopaxi, and possibly Cañar provinces). The bicoloured antpitta (G. rufocinerea) is divided into two subspecies, which will be discussed below.

The hooded antpitta (Grallaricula cucullata) is divided into two subspecies. The western hooded antpitta (G. c. cucullata) is known from a few widely scattered localities in Colombia within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central (Valle del Cauca, Antioquia, Risaralda, Huila, and possibly Cauca department). The eastern hooded antpitta (G. c. venezuelana) is similarly known from a few localities along the Cordillera Oriental of north-central Colombia (Cundinamarca) and north-western Venezuela (although there have been no records from the latter country for many decades).

The chestnut-bellied cotinga (Doliornis remseni) is a type of passerine bird known from a few widely scattered localities in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, Ecuador, and possibly northern Peru.

The white-cheeked cotinga (Zaratornis stresemanni) is found patchily in the Cordillera Occidental and possibly the Cordillera Central of western Peru (La Libertad, Ancash, Lima, and Ayacucho departments).

The yellow-headed manakin (Chloropipo flavicapilla) is a passerine bird found widely but patchily in the Andes of western Colombia and northern Ecuador, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The red-bellied grackle (Hypopyrrhus pyrohypogaster) was historically found in all three Andean cordilleras, but was extirpated from much of its former range due to loss of its montane forest habitat. Since 1980 it has only been recorded patchily and generally in small numbers.

The white-tailed shrike-tyrant (Agriornis albicauda) occurs widely across the high Andes, but is everywhere rare and declining for reasons that remain unclear. The southern white-tailed shrike-tyrant (A. a. albicauda) is found in western and southern Peru, south-western Bolivia, northern Chile, and north-western Argentina. The northern white-tailed shriketyrant (A. a. andicola) is found in central Ecuador.

The ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Anairetes alpinus) is divided into two subspecies. The western ash-breasted tit-tyrant (A. a. alpinus) is found in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Occidental of southern Peru (La Libertad, Ancash, and Lima departments). The eastern ash-breasted tit-tyrant (A. a. bolivianus) occurs in the Cordillera Oriental of southeastern Peru (Apurímac and Cuzco departments) and western Bolivia (La Paz department). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The multicoloured tanager (Chlorochrysa nitidissima) is found patchily within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of north-western Colombia (Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, Quindío, Valle del Cauca, and Cauca departments).

The white-capped tanager (Sericossypha albocristata) is found throughout the northern Andes but is everywhere threatened by loss of its montane forest habitat.

The black and gold tanager (Bangsia melanochlamys) is confined to two disjunct areas of western Colombia. The first is in the Cordillera Central of Antioquia department, where it had not been recorded since 1948 until its rediscovery in 1999. The other area is on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Chocó, Risaralda, and Valle de Cauca departments.

The masked mountain-tanager (Tephrophilus wetmorei) is widespread but uncommon within the Andes of western Colombia, central Ecuador, and north-western Peru.

The turquoise dacnis (Dacnis hartlaubi) is a type of passerine bird with a restricted and disjunct distribution within all three Andean cordilleras, where it is rare and most likely declining.

The Magdalena tapaculo (Scytalopus rodriguezi) is a type of passerine bird divided into two subspecies. Rodriquez’s Magdalena tapaculo (S. r. rodriguezi) and the Yariguíes Magdalena tapaculo (S. r. yariguiorum) are each known only from few disjunct localities within the Cordillera Central and perhaps Cordillera Oriental, at the head of the Magdalena Valley in south-western Colombia. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The white-bellied cinclodes (Cinclodes palliatus) is a type of passerine bird confined to a few areas of high-elevation marshy grassland in south-western Peru (Junín department).

The bicoloured antvireo (Dysithamnus occidentalis) is divided into two subspecies. The northern bicoloured antpitta (D. o. occidentalis) occurs within the Cordillera Occidental of south-western Colombia (Valle del Cauca, Cauca, and Nariño departments), with a single additional record from northwestern Ecuador (Carchi province). The southern bicoloured antvireo (D. o. punctitectus) is known from a few disjunct localities in eastern Ecuador (Napo and Morona Santiago provinces), and possibly as far south as north-western Peru (Cajamarca and Amazonas departments). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

Coursen’s spinetail (Synallaxis courseni) is known only from a few isolated localities in southern Peru.

The yellow-headed brushfinch (Atlapetes flaviceps) was long known only from two specimens collected in 1911, and a further two in 1942. It has since been recorded from several river valleys within both the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Occidental of western Colombia, but is everywhere rare and threatened by loss of habitat.

The pink-throated brilliant (Heliodoxa gularis) is a rare type of hummingbird that occurs in the Andean foothills of south-western Colombia (Cauca and Putumayo departments), north-central Ecuador (Sucumbíos and Napo provinces), and northern Peru (Loreto, Amazonas, and San Martín departments).

The grey-bellied comet (Taphrolesbia griseiventris) is a type of hummingbird confined to a few localities in northwestern Peru.

The marvellous spatulatail (Loddigesia mirabilis) is a rare type of hummingbird confined to a small area of northwestern Peru (Amazonas and San Martín departments).

Parker’s spectacled lizard (Macropholidus annectens) is known only from a few localities in southern Ecuador (Loja and Zamora Chinchipe provinces).

Peters’ anadia (Anadia petersi) is a type of lizard known only from a single ill-defined locality in southern Ecuador (Loja province).

Rueda’s anole (Anolis maculigula) is known only from a few localities within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of north-western Colombia (Chocó and Antioquia departments).

Lasalle’s shadow snake (Synophis lasallei) is known from a few scattered localities across all three Andean cordilleras in west-central Colombia.

The three-striped saphenophis snake (Saphenophis tristriatus) is known only from two specimens collected from south-western Colombia and a possible third from Ecuador.

The obese ground snake (Atractus obesus), Nicefor’s ground snake (A. nicefori), and the bignose ground snake (A. obtusirostris) are each known only sporadically from parts of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of western and north-western Colombia, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Caquetá blind snake (Trilepida brevissima) is known only from two specimens, which may or may not be conspecific, collected during the mid-twentieth century from undefined localities.

Cannatella’s plump toad (Osornophryne talipes) is confined to southern Colombia (Nariño and Cauca departments) and extreme north-central Ecuador (Carchi and Imbabura provinces).

Schmidt’s stubfoot toad (Atelopus pachydermus) was historically known from a small area of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of north-western Peru (Cajamarca and Amazonas departments), and from another in the Cordillera Oriental of southern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province). The species underwent a sudden drastic population decline, most likely due to chytridiomycosis, and has not been recorded since the mid-1990s. It may be extinct. The Quito stubfoot toad (A. ignescens) was historically known from all three Andean cordilleras of north-central Ecuador. It too underwent a sudden decline and was thought to be extinct until the rediscovery of a small population in 2016.

Baumgardner’s snouted tree frog (Scinax baumgardneri) is known only from a few specimens collected in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state).

The rough-headed marsupial frog (Gastrotheca trachyceps) is known only from two disjunct localities within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of south-western Colombia (Cauca department). The jester marsupial frog (G. bufona) is found sporadically within the within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of north-western Colombia (Antioquia and Caldas departments). The Espeletia marsupial frog (G. espeletia) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and adjacent northern Ecuador (Carchi province). Fowler’s marsupial frog (G. riobambae) is found in the Andes and inter-Andean valleys of north-central and central Ecuador. All are threatened by loss of habitat.

Several species of giant glass frog (Centrolene) have been seriously impacted by loss of habitat. Jiménez de la Espada’s giant glass frog (C. geckoidea) was historically found throughout all three main Andean cordilleras, but underwent a drastic decline in the 1990s most likely due to chytridiomycosis, and may now be extinct. Buckley’s giant glass frog (C. buckleyi) remains widespread throughout much of the northern Andes but has undergone significant declines in some areas. The Huila giant glass frog (C. huilense) is known only from two localities in Colombia (Huila department) and north-central Ecuador (Napo province). Quindians’ giant glass frog (C. quindianum) is found widely but patchily within the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Occidental.

Garcia’s glass frog (Nymphargus garciae) was previously known only from the Cordillera Central in south-western Colombia (Cauca, Huila, and Tolima departments), but appears to have historically extended into the Cordillera Oriental of north-central Ecuador (Napo and Sucumbíos provinces). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Cauca poison dart frog (Andinobates bombetes) is confined to a few scattered localities within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of western Colombia.

Boulenger’s rocket frog (Hyloxalus vertebralis) occurs in the Cordillera Occidental and inter-Andean valleys of southcentral Ecuador (Loja, Morona Santiago, Azuay, Cañar, and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). The silvan rocket frog (H. sylvaticus) is found in the Cordillera Occidental and in the Huancabamba Depression of north-western Peru (Piura and Cajamarca departments). Both are threatened by loss of habitat and possibly chytridiomycosis.

The Quito rocket frog (Colostethus jacobuspetersi) is known patchily from slopes and inter-Andean valleys in north-central Ecuador. Mertens’ rocket frog (C. mertensi) is found patchily in the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Oriental of south-western Colombia. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

Hernandez’s robber frog (Pristimantis hernandezi) is found disjunctly in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental of south-western Colombia (Huila and Caquetá departments). Wild’s robber frog (P. ceuthospilus) is found in the Cordillera Occidental and the Huancabamba Depression of north-western Peru (Piura and Cajamarca departments). The tuber-nosed robber frog (P. tubernasus) is found in northern Colombia and north-western Venezuela. The supernatural robber frog (P. supernatis) is found in the Cordillera Central of south-western Colombia and extreme northern Ecuador (Carchi province). The graceful robber frog (P. gracilis) is found patchily in the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of western Colombia. The black-marked robber frog (P. melanoproctus) and Mondolf’s robber frog (P. mondolfii) are both confined to a small area of western Venezuela (Táchira state) and northern Colombia (Norte de Santander department). All are threatened by loss of habitat and possibly chytridiomycosis.

The red-spotted dink frog (Diasporus anthrax) is confined to a few localities within the eastern foothills of the Cordillera Central and the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of north-western Colombia (Caldas, Antioquia, and Santander departments), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The black water frog (Telmatobius niger) was historically known from both Andean ranges in south-central Ecuador (Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay, and Morona Santiago provinces), but underwent a massive decline most likely due to chytridiomycosis. Last reported in 1994, it may be extinct.

The Medellín climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa phalarosoma) is confined to a few scattered localities within the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of north-western Colombia (Antioquia, Tolima, and Caldas departments).

The Cordillera Occidental

The Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera) is the lowest and narrowest of the three main Andean cordilleras. It begins in north-western Colombia (Cordoba department) and extends south through Antioquia, Choco, Risaralda, Caldas, Valle del Cauca, and Cauca departments before beginning to run parallel with the Cordillera Oriental in Nariño department. It then proceeds down through central Ecuador (Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Santo Domingo de Los Tsáchilas, Cotopaxi, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay, El Oro, and Loja provinces), western Peru (Piura, Lambayeque, Cajamarca, La Libertad, Ancash, Lima, Huancavelica, Ayacucho, Arequipa, Moquegua, and Tacna departments) and marginally into northern Chile (Arica y Parinacota region).

Hernández-Camacho’s night monkey (Aotus jorgehernandezi) is a nocturnal species known only from a small area of the Cordillera Occidental in north-western Colombia (Chocó department).

Don Felipe’s weasel (Mustela felipei), one of the world’s smallest and rarest carnivores, is known only from six specimens collected from five localities in south-western Colombia (Chocó, Valle del Cauca, Cauca, and Huila departments) and northern Ecuador (Napo province). It was photographed for the first time in 2011.

The blackish shrew opposum (Caenolestes convelatus) is known only from two disjunct areas of western Colombia and north-central Ecuador, extending into extreme south-western Colombia.

Hammond’s rice rat (Mindomys hammondi) is known only from three cloud forest localities in north-western Ecuador.

Hudson’s Oldfield mouse (Thomasomys hudsoni) is known only from its original collection in the 1920s in southern Ecuador (Azuay province). The silky Olfield mouse (T. bombycinus) is known only from three localities in western Colombia (Antioquia and Risaralda departments).

The western puna mouse (Punomys lemminus) is known only from four isolated areas of high-elevation puna grassland in southern Peru.

The definitive leaf-eared mouse (Phyllotis definitus) is known only from a few high-elevation localities in west-central Peru (Ancash department).

The Mistrato yellow-shouldered bat (Sturnira mistratensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from western Colombia (Risaralda department).

The cloud forest pygmy owl (Glaucidium nubicola) is confined to a narrow altitudinal band of the Cordillera Occidental in south-western Colombia and north-western Ecuador.

Orcés’ parakeet (Pyrrhura orcesi) is confined to a small area of south-western Ecuador (Canar, Azuay, El Oro, and Loja provinces). In 2007 the total population was estimated at less than 1000.

The dark-backed wood quail (Odontophorus melanonotus) is found patchily in south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, and Cotopaxi provinces).

The gold-ringed tanager (Bangsia aureocincta) is a rare species confined to high-altitude cloud forests in northwestern Colombia (Chocó, Valle del Cauca. Risaralda and Antioquia departments).

The chestnut-bellied flowerpiercer (Diglossa gloriosissima) is a type of tanager divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (D. g. gloriosissima) appears to be confined to a small area of south-western Colombia (Cauca department). Boyle’s chestnut-bellied flowerpiercer (D. g. boylei) is found in a few widely scattered areas of high-altitude páramo and elfin forest in western Colombia (Antioquia, Chocó, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments).

The russet-bellied spinetail (Synallaxis zimmeri) is a type of passerine bird confined to a small area of high-altitude shrubland in west-central Peru.

The Antioquia antpitta (Grallaria fenwickorum) is known only from a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). It is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The Ecuadorian tapaculo (Scytalopus robbinsi) is a small passerine bird known only from south-western Ecuador (Cañar, Azuay, and El Oro provinces).

The chestnut-backed thornbird (Phacellodomus dorsalis) is a type of passerine bird found patchily in north-western Peru (Cajamarca, Amazonas, La Libertad, and possibly Ancash departments).

The rufous-necked foliage-gleaner (Syndactyla ruficollis) is a type of passerine bird from south-western Ecuador (El Oro and Loja provinces) and north-western Peru (Tumbes, Piura, Lambayeque, and Cajamarca departments). It is threatened by habitat destruction.

The pale-tailed thistletail (Asthenes huancavelicae) is a type of passerine bird divided into two subspecies. Usher’s pale-taled thistletail (A. h. usheri) is confined to a small area of high-altitude shrublands in north-western Peru (La Libertad and Ancash departments).

The pale-headed brushfinch (Atlapetes pallidiceps) was thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1998 in a small area of south-central Ecuador (Azuay and Loja provinces). It is threatened by habitat destruction and the nest-parasitic shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis). The total population in 2009 was estimated at around 340, most of which live in the Yunguilla Reserve.

The plain-tailed warbling finch (Microspingus alticola) is a rare species found patchily in west-central Peru (Cajamarca, La Libertad, and Ancash departments).

The rufous-breasted mountain finch (Poospiza rubecula) is a rare species known only from a few scattered localities in western Peru.

The Munchique wood wren (Henicorhina negreti) is found patchily in the highest peaks of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia.

The northern yellow-breasted antwren (Herpsilochmus axillaris senex) is confined to south-western Colombia (Choco, Valle del Cauca, and Cauca departments).

The violet-throated metaltail (Metallura baroni) is a type of hummingbird known only from a few localities in southwestern Ecuador (Azuay and Cañar provinces).

The turquoise-throated puffleg (Eriocnemis godini) is (or was) a type of hummingbird known only from six specimens collected in northern Ecuador (Pichincha province) during the nineteenth century. Numerous searches have failed to find the species since, and it is most likely extinct. The blackbreasted puffleg (E. nigrivestis) is similarly known only from a small area of northern Ecuador, where in 2016 the total population was believed to number fewer than 300. The colourful puffleg (E. mirabilis) is confined to north-western Ecuador (Pichincha, Esmeraldas, and Imbabura provinces). In all three cases loss of habitat appears to be the cause of the decline.

The glittering starfrontlet (Coeligena orina) is a type of hummingbird that was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1951 from north-western Colombia. Rediscovered in 2004, it is now known from around a dozen localities in four main subpopulations.

Haensch’s whorltail iguana (Stenocercus haenschi) is known only from its original collection in 1901 from central Ecuador (Bolívar province). The ivy whorltail iguana (S. ivitus) is known only from its original collection in 1972 from north-western Peru (Piura department). Peracca’s whorltail iguana (S. festae) is confined to a few localities in southern Ecuador (Azuay, Cañar, and Loja provinces). The blackspotted whorltail iguana (S. nigromaculatus) is known only from a small area of north-western Peru (Piura department).

The short-headed rough tegu (Echinosaura brachycephala) is confined to a small area of northern Ecuador (Cotopaxi, Santo Domingo de Los Tsáchilas, and Pichincha provinces).

Several lightbulb lizards of the genus Andinosaura are threatened by loss of habitat. The Alto Indio lightbulb lizard (A. afrania) is known only from a single locality in northwestern Colombia (Antioquia department). Stella’s lightbulb lizard (A. stellae) is known only from the La Planada Nature Reserve in far south-western Colombia (Nariño department). O’Shaughnessy’s lightbulb lizard (A. oculata) is confined to a small area of north-western Ecuador (Pichincha, Cotopaxi, and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces). The shiny lightbulb lizard (A. laevis) is confined to central-western Colombia (Valle del Cauca, Caldas, and Risaralda departments). Kirizian’s lightbulb lizard (A. vieta) is confined to west-central Ecuador (Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces).

The Cachil spectacled lizard (Macropholidus ataktolepis) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Cajamarca department).

Williams’ scaly eyed dwarf gecko (Lepidoblepharis williamsi) is a rare species known only from a few localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department).

The proboscis anole (Anolis proboscis) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1953 in north-western Ecuador (Chocó department). It was rediscovered in small numbers in 2002.

The Catamayo coral snake (Micrurus catamayensis) is known only from the Catamayo Valley in southern Ecuador (Loja province). The Popayan coral snake (M. oligoanellatus) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). Both are threatened by habitat destruction and collection for use in ‘traditional medicine’.

The Loja lancehead (Bothrocophias lojanus) is a type of venomous snake confined to two subpopulations in southern Ecuador (Loja and Zamora Chinchipe provinces).

The Atahuallpa saphenophis snake (Saphenophis atahuallpae) is known only from three localities in central Ecuador (Cotopaxi, Bolívar and Pichincha provinces).

The Hacienda San Pedro shadow snake (Synophis plectovertebralis) is known only from two specimens collected from a small patch of cloud forest in south-western Colombia (Valle del Cauca department). If the species survives at all it is highly threatened by habitat destruction. The Pichincha shadow snake (S. calamitus) is known only from a small area of north-western Ecuador (Pichincha province).

The Vereda La Lana ground snake (Atractus nasutus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1954 in northwestern Colombia (Antioquia department). A survey of this locality in 2013 failed to find the species within the little habitat that remained. The Jericó ground snake (A. oculotemporalis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1932 in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Carrion’s ground snake (A. carrioni) is known only from a small area of southern Ecuador and north-western Peru. Savage’s ground snake (A. occidentalis) is known only from three unspecified localities in north-western Ecuador. The modest ground snake (A. modestus) is known only from a few specimens collected over a relatively wide area of west-central Ecuador. Roule’s ground snake (A. roulei) is known only from a few localities in south-western Ecuador (Bolívar, Chimborazo, and probably El Oro provinces).

The Betanien earth snake (Geophis betaniensis) is known only from two specimens collected from a single locality in west-central Colombia (Valle del Cauca department).

Alfred Schmidt’s blind snake (Epictia alfredschmidti) is known only from a single locality in western Peru (Ancash department).

A number of species of stubfoot toad (Atelopus) from the Cordillera Occidental have become extinct or are seriously threatened due to chytridiomycosis, pollution, and habitat destruction. The longnose stubfoot toad (A. longirostris) was historically known from north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces). Last recorded in 1989 despite extensive searches, it is now considered extinct. Lynch’s stubfoot toad (A. lynchi) is known only from a single locality in northern Ecuador (Carchi province), where it was last recorded in 1984. Nicéforo’s stubfoot toad (A. nicefori) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). It was last recorded in 1988. Eusebio Diaz’s stubfoot toad (A. eusebiodiazi) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Piura department). Last recorded in 1997, it may be extinct. The Cajamarca stubfoot toad (A. peruensis) was historically found in north-western Peru (Cajamarca, Ancash, and Piura departments). The species has not been recorded since 1998 after having undergone a sudden, drastic decline, and is possibly extinct. The Guanujo stubfoot toad (A. guanujo) is known only from the upper Rio Chimbo Valley in central Ecuador (Bolívar province), where it was nevertheless described as common at one time. Last seen in 1988, it was considered most likely extinct until rediscovered in 2020. The Chocó stubfoot toad (A. chocoensis) was historically known from a small area of western Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments). Last seen in 1998, it is most likely extinct. Onore’s stubfoot toad (A. onorei) was historically known only from a single locality in south-western Ecuador (Azuay province), where it was last recorded in 1990. The Cauca stubfoot toad (A. famelicus) is known only from a small area of south-western Colombia (Cauca department). An additional population in Valle del Cauca department is now extirpated. Coyne’s stubfoot toad (A. coynei) is known from north-western Ecuador (Pichincha, Imbabura and Carchi provinces), where it has undergone a drastic population decline. Arthur’s stubfoot toad (A. arthuri) is confined to a small area in central Ecuador (Chimborazo and Bolívar provinces). The Rio Carauta stubfoot toad (A. carauta) is known only from two localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Last collected in 1987, it may survive in Las Orquídeas National Park. The Mindo stubfoot toad (A. mindoensis) was historically known from north-western Ecuador (Pichincha, Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, and Cotopaxi provinces). Last recorded in 1989, it was thought to be extinct until rediscovered in 2019. The El Tambo stubfoot toad (A. longibrachius) is known only from two localities in western Colombia (El Tambo in Cauca department, and Playa de Oro in Chocó department). The Mazán stubfoot toad (A. exiguus) is known only from a few localities in south-central Ecuador (Azuay province).

The Antioquia beaked toad (Rhinella tenrec) and the Murrí beaked toad (R. lindae) are both confined to a small area of western Colombia (Antioquia department), where they are threatened by loss of habitat.

Lynch’s Andes toad (Rhaebo lynchi) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Coloma’s Andes toad (R. colomai) is confined to a small area of south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and, at least historically, north-western Ecuador (Carchi province). There have been no records from the latter country since 1984. The Munchique Andes toad (R. atelopoides) is known only from Munchique National Park in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). The blue-spotted Andes toad (R. caeruleostictus) is known from a few localities over a relatively wide area of western Ecuador. All are threatened by loss of habitat destruction and degradation.

Charazan’s tree frog (Hyloscirtus charazani) is confined to a small area of western Bolivia (La Paz department). The Munchique tree frog (H. sarampiona) is confined to Munchique National Park in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). The Pilalo tree frog (H. ptychodactylus) is confined to a small area of north-western Ecuador (Cotopaxi province). Simmons’ tree frog (H. simmonsi) is known from a few localities in western Colombia (Antioquia, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments). All are threatened by loss of habitat and, possibly, chytridiomycosis.

The Antioquia leaf frog (Agalychnis danieli) is known only from a single specimen collected from western Colombia (Antioquia department).

The Antomia marsupial frog (Gastrotheca antomia) was historically known from a relatively wide area of western Colombia (Antioquia, Risaralda, Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments), but underwent a sudden, massive decline during the 1990s most likely due to chytridiomycosis. It may be extinct. Günther’s marsupial frog (G. guentheri) was also once widely distributed within the Cordilllera Occidental of western Colombia and Ecuador, but has not been observed in either country since the 1990s. The silver marsupial frog (G. plumbea) is known from a small number of localities within the Cordillera Occidental of northern and central Ecuador. Several species of giant glass frog (Centrolene) endemic to the Cordillera Occidental are threatened by loss of habitat, pollution, introduced predatory fish, and possibly chytridiomycosis. The San Francisco de Las Pampas giant glass frog (C. gemmata) is known only from a single locality in north-western Ecuador (Cotopaxi province). The bumpy giant glass frog (C. heloderma) was historically known, disjunctly, from a few localities in western Colombia (Cauca, Valle del Cauca, and Risaralda departments), where it was last recorded in 1996. Records from north-western Ecuador are almost certainly erroneous. The Tandayapa giant glass frog (C. scirtetes) is known only from two widely separated localities in southern Colombia (Nariño department) and northwestern Ecuador (Pichincha province). Lynch’s giant glass frog (C. lynchi) is known only from a small area of northwestern Ecuador (Pichincha and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces). Burrowes’ giant glass frog (C. ballux) is known from a few disjunct localities in southern Colombia (Nariño department) and north-western Ecuador (Pichincha and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces).

Several glass frogs of the genus Nymphargus endemic to the Cordillera Occidental are threatened mainly by loss of habitat. The Cerro Ingles glass frog (N. armatus) is known only from a single locality in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca department). The species underwent a drastic decline due to chytridiomycosis and has not been recorded since 1997. Christina’s glass frog (N. cristinae) is known only from two localities in western Colombia (Antioquia department). The Buenaventura glass frog (N. buenaventura) is known only from the Buenaventura Reserve in southern Ecuador (El Oro province). The El Tambo glass frog (N. luteopunctatus) is known only from a small area of south-western Colombia (Cauca department). The luminous glass frog (N. luminosus) is known only from three localities in western Colombia (Antioquia department). Duellman’s glass frog (N. prasinus) and Ruiz’s glass frog (N. ruizi) are both known only from a few localities over a relatively wide area of western Colombia.

The Chorro Blanco Cochran frog (Cochranella euhystrix) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). The yellow-wristed Cochran frog (C. xanthocheridia) is found patchily in north-western Colombia (Cordoba, Antioquia, and Risaralda departments). Both are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution.

The phantasmal poison dart frog (Epipedobates tricolor) is known from a handful of localities in west-central Ecuador (Cotopaxi and Bolívar provinces).

The La Planada poison dart frog (Paruwrobates andina) is known only from a single locality on the Pacific flank of the Cordillera Occidental in south-western Colombia (Nariño department). Not recorded since the 1990s, it is possibly extinct. Whymper’s poison dart frog (P. whymperi) is known only from a few specimens collected in north-western Ecuador (Pichincha province).

Lehmann’s poison dart frog (Oophaga lehmanni) is known only from a few localities on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments).

Several rocket frogs of the genus Hyloxalus endemic to the Cordillera Occidental are threatened by loss of habitat and a variety of other causes. The Carchi rocket frog (H. delatorreae) underwent a sudden, drastic decline most likely due to chytridiomycosis, and is now confined to a small area of extreme north-western Ecuador (Carchi province). The Cotopaxi rocket frog (H. fallax) is known only from a small area of west-central Ecuador (Cotopaxi province). The Napo rocket frog (H. fuliginosus) is known only from a small area of north-central Ecuador (Napo province). The Maquipucuna rocket frog (H. maquipucuna) is known only from the Maquipucuna Reserve in north-western Ecuador (Pichincha province). The Cutervo rocket frog (H. pulcherrimus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Cajamarca department).

The Ituango rocket frog (Colostethus yaguara), Antadó rocket frog (C. furviventris) and the Las Orquídeas rocket frog (C. dysprosium) are all known only from a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The Finca Primavera rocket frog (C. alacris) is confined to a small area of south-western Colombia (Cauca department).

Ramirez’s rocket frog (Leucostethus ramirezi) is known only from a small area in and around Las Orquídeas National Park in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department).

The confusing rocket frog (Ectopoglossus confusus) is known only from a few lower montane localities in northwestern Ecuador.

The freckled robber frog (Tachiramantis lentiginosus) is confined to a few localities in western Venezuela (Táchira and Mérida) and northern Colombia (Norte de Santander). It is threatened by loss of habitat and, possibly, chytridiomycosis.

The Nutibara robber frog (Strabomantis cadenai) is known only from a single locality in western Colombia (Antioquia department). Not recorded since its original description in 1982 despite repeated searches, it may be extinct. The hornless robber frog (S. necerus) is historically known from a few disjunct localities in south-western Colombia and north-western Ecuador. Last recorded in the 1990s, it may be extinct. The Rio Pitzara robber frog (S. helonotus) is known only from two localities in northwestern Ecuador (Pichincha province). The cheiroplethus robber frog (S. cheiroplethus) is found discontinuously in western Colombia (Antioquia, Chocó, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments). The duck-footed robber frog (S. anatipes) is found patchily in south-western Colombia and north-western Ecuador. Ruiz’s robber frog (S. ruizi) is known only from a few localities in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca department). All are threatened by loss of habitat and, possibly, chytridiomycosis.

A great many robber frogs of the genus Pristimantis endemic to the Cordillera Occidental are threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis. Alberico’s robber frog (P. albericoi) is known only from a single stream in western Colombia (Chocó department). Last recorded in 1986, it is possibly extinct. The Rio Calima robber frog (P. diaphonus) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Valle del Cauca department). The species underwent an extreme decline and has not been recorded since 1993 despite surveys. It may be extinct. Ruíz-Carranza’s robber frog (P. chrysops) was historically known from several localities in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments). Last seen in 1997 after having undergone a drastic decline likely due to chytridiomycosis, it is possibly extinct. The Valle del Cauca robber frog (P. deinops) was historically known from a few localities in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca department). Last seen in 2001 after having undergone a drastic decline likely due to chytridiomycosis, it is possibly extinct. The crowned robber frog (P. coronatus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Piura department). The species underwent a drastic decline in the 1990s likely due to chytridiomycosis, and is possibly extinct. The cacao robber frog (P. cacao) was historically known only from a few cloud forest localities within Munchique National Park in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). Last seen in 2001 after having undergone a drastic decline during the 1990s, most likely due to chytridiomycosis, it is possibly extinct. Jaime’s robber frog (P. jaimei) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). The Ricuarte robber frog (P. scolodiscus) is known only from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Imbabura, and Esmeraldas provinces). The Las Orquídeas robber frog (P. baiotis) is known only from Las Orquídeas National Park in western Colombia (Antioquia department). The Urrao robber frog (P. polemistes) is known only from four specimens collected from a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The Hacienda El Tambito robber frog (P. diogenes) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). The Nueva York robber frog (P. caeruleonotus) and Wien’s robber frog (P. wiensi) are each known only from a small area of northwestern Peru (Piura department). The La Planada robber frog (P. apiculatus) is found disjunctly in south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Imbabura, and Pichincha provinces). Burrowes’ robber frog (P. laticlavius) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Esmeraldas, and Pichincha provinces). The dwarf robber frog (P. hectus) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Nariño and Cauca departments) and northern Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces). The Chorro Blanco robber frog (P. amydrotus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). The Zapadores robber frog (P. quinquagesimus) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Imbabura, and Pichincha provinces). The El Cairo robber frog (P. kelephus) is known only from a single locality in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments). The Murrí robber frog (P. bellona) is known only from two localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Cabrera’s robber frog (P. cabrerai) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Boulenger’s robber frog (P. calcaratus) is found patchily in western Colombia (Risaralda, Chocó, and Valle del Cauca departments). The Cerro Ucchahuilca robber frog (P. chimu) is known only from a single locality in northwestern Peru (Cajamarca department). The reserve robber frog (P. siopelus) is known only from extreme south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and possibly adjacent northern Ecuador (Carchi province). The La Empalada robber frog (P. mars) appears to be confined to a single locality in western Colombia (Risaralda department). Philip’s robber frog (P. philipi) is known only from a small area of south-western Ecuador (Azuay province). Eugenia’s robber frog (P. eugeniae) is confined to a small area of cloud forests in the upper Pilatón River valley of north-western Ecuador (Pichincha province). The Rio Zaña robber frog (P. phalaroinguinis) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). The Rio Saloya robber frog (P. sobetes) is known only from a few localities in northwestern Ecuador (Pichincha province). The Caraz robber frog (P. meridionalis) is known only from a single locality in northwestern Peru (Ancash department). The Hacienda Taulis robber frog (P. ventriguttatus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). The Pilaló robber frog (P. thymalopsoides) is known only from a single locality in west-central Ecuador (Cotapaxi province). Gentry’s robber frog (P. gentryi) is confined to a small area in west-central Ecuador (Cotopaxi province). The Molleturo robber frog (P. ruidus) is known only from a single locality in south-western Ecuador (Azuay province). The crest robber frog (P. balionotus) is known only from a single locality on the border between Loja and Zamora Chinchipe provinces in southern Ecuador. Simon Bolívar’s robber frog (P. simonbolivari) is known only from a single locality in central Ecuador (Bolívar province). The channel robber frog (P. sulculus) is known only from La Planada Natural Reserve in south-western Colombia (Nariño department). The Páramo de Tatamá robber frog (P. xestus) is confined to a small area of western Colombia (Chocó and Risaralda departments). The crossmarked robber frog (P. crucifer) is known from a few localities in north-western Ecuador (Imbabura, Pichincha, Esmeraldas, Cotopaxi, Bolívar, and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces). Lasalles’ robber frog (P. lasalleorum) is known only from a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The Cajamarca robber frog (P. petrobardus) is known only from a few localities in north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). Rueda’s robber frog (P. ruedai) is known from a few localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia, Choco, and Risaralda departments). The ocellated robber frog (P. ocellatus) is known from a few disjunct localities in south-western Colombia (Cauca and Nariño departments) and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Esmeraldas, and Imbabura provinces). Johannes Dei’s robber frog (P. johannesdei) is known only from a few localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia, Chocó, and Risaralda departments). The San Vicente robber frog (P. cryophilius) is known only from a few localities in south-central Ecuador (Cañar, Azuay, and Morona Santiago provinces). The Maldonado robber frog (P. loustes) is known only from two disjunct localities in southwestern Colombia (Nariño department) and northern Ecuador (Carchi province). Trueb’s robber frog (P. truebae) is known only from a few localities in west-central Ecuador (Bolívar, Cañar, and Cotopaxi provinces). Duellman’s robber frog (P. duellmani) is found widely but patchily in south-western Colombia (Cauca and Nariño departments) and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Imbabura, and Pichincha provinces). The Chiriboga robber frog (P. eremitus) is found widely but patchily in south-western Colombia (Nariño departments) and northern Ecuador (Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Carchi, and Pichincha provinces). The Tandapi robber frog (P. nyctophylax) is known only from a few localities in north-western Ecuador (Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces). The vertebral robber frog (P. vertebralis) is confined to a small area of northwestern Ecuador (Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, and Bolívar provinces). The mutable robber frog (P. mutabilis) is known only from two disjunct localities in north-western Ecuador (Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). The bamboo robber frog (P. bambu) is known only from two disjunct localities in south-central Ecuador (Cañar and Azuay provinces). The myopic robber frog (P. myops) is known only from western Colombia (Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments). The pteridophyte robber frog (P. pteridophilus) is known only from a few localities in north-western Ecuador (Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). The Phalarus robber frog (P. phalarus) is known only from two localities in western Colombia (Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments). The narrow-lined robber frog (P. angustilineatus) is confined to a few localties in western Colombia (Chocó, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca departments). The greasy robber frog (P. pinguis) is known only from a small area of north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). The deaf robber frog (P. surdus) is confined to a small area of north-western Ecuador (Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). The florid robber frog (P. floridus) is confined to a small area of north-western Ecuador (Cotopaxi, Imbabura, and Pichincha provinces). The ornate robber frog (P. ornatissimus) is confined to a small area of north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, and Cotopaxi provinces). The purple robber frog (P. muricatus) is known from a few localities in north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Pichincha, and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces). The dissimulated robber frog (P. dissimulatus) is confined to a small area of north-western Ecuador (Pichincha and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas provinces). The gold-spotted robber frog (P. aurantiguttatus) is found patchily in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The begging robber frog (P. ptochus) is known from a few scattered localities in central-western Colombia. The Antioquia robber frog (P. satagius) is known only from a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The spurred robber frog (P. calcarulatus) is confined to a few localities in north-central Ecuador. The large-headed robber frog (P. capitonis) is found disjunctly in centralwestern and south-western Colombia (Cauca and Valle del Cauca departments). The Cerro Munchique robber frog (P. viridicans) is known only from a few disjunct areas of south-western Colombia (Cauca and Valle del Cauca departments). The Santiago de Chuco robber frog (P. cordovae) is known only from a few scattered localities in north-western Peru (La Libertad and Ancash departments). The trickster robber frog (P. tenebrionis) and the skeptical robber frog (P. pyrrhomerus) are both known only from a few localities in north-western Ecuador. The big-throated robber frog (P. polychrus) is known only from three scattered localities in north-western Colombia. The Pilalo robber frog (P. actites) is confined to a small area of west-central Ecuador (Cotopaxi province). The flat-lipped robber frog (P. platychilus) is found patchily throughout a relatively wide area of the Cordillera Occidental in western Colombia. The Duende robber frog (P. duende) and the small gift robber frog (P. xeniolum) are both confined to the Páramo de Duende in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments). The Huancabamba robber frog (P. rhodoplichus) is confined to a few localities in north-western Peru (Piura department) and possibly southeastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe and Loja provinces).

The El Tambo big-headed frog (Lynchius nebulanastes) and Parker’s big-headed frog (L. parkeri) are each known only from a small area of north-western Peru (Piura department).

Thompson’s Andes frog (Phrynopus thompsoni) is known only from a single locality in western Peru (La Libertad department).

The Río Guajalito Noble frog (Noblella coloma) is known only from the Río Guajalito Reserve in north-western Ecuador (Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas province).

Several species of semi-aquatic water frog (Telmatobius) from the Cordillera Occidental are extinct or seriously threatened due to disease, habitat destruction and overcollection for food. The Loja water frog (T. cirrhacelis) is known only from a small area of southern Ecuador (Loja and Zamora Chinchipe provinces), where it is now possibly extinct. Hocking’s water frog (T. hockingi) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Ancash department). Wiegmann’s water frog (T. peruvianus) was historically known from south-eastern Peru and far north-western Chile (although it has not been recorded in the latter country since 1986). The Cajamarca water frog (T. latirostris) is found disjunctly within a small area of north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). Thompson’s water frog (T. thompsoni) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (La Libertad department). The Agallpampa water frog (T. degener) is known only from a single locality in northwestern Peru (La Libertad department). Mayolo’s water frog (T. mayoloi) is confined to a single locality in western Peru (Ancash department). The Allipaca water frog (T. intermedius) is known only from a few high-elevation streams in south-eastern Peru (Ayacuchu department). The Piura water frog (T. ignavus) is known only from two localities in northwestern Peru (Piura department).

The winter climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa hiemalis) is confined to Páramo del Duende Regional Natural Park in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments).

The El Tambo caecilian (Epicrionops columbianus) is known for certain only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Cauca department), although it is possible that records from Chocó department may represent this species.

The Paramillo Massif

The Paramillo Massif (Nudo de Paramillo in Spanish) is located at the northern end of the Cordillera Occidental in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Most of the area lies within Paramillo National Park, which extends from the massif into the lowlands of the Caribbean plain.

The Paramillo tapaculo (Scytalopus canus) is a type of passerine bird confined to two areas of páramo on the Paramillo Massif.

The Antado stubfoot toad (Atelopus galactogaster) is known only from two localities within Paramillo National Park. It was last collected in 1993.

Betancur’s rocket frog (Hyloxalus betancuri) is known only from Paramillo National Park.

The Paraguas Range

The Paraguas Range (Serranía de los Paraguas) is located in west-central Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments).

Three species of robber frog (Pristimantis) are endemic to the Paraguas Range, where they are seriously threatened by chytrid fungus and habitat destruction. The Paraguas crest robber frog (P. xylochobates) was known only from two localities on the crest of the Paraguas Range, where it was last recorded in 1998. The sign robber frog (P. signifer) is known only from a single locality. The quantas robber frog (P. quantus) is known only from two localities.

The Paraguas cryptic forest frog (Ectopoglossus atopoglossus) is known only from the Paraguas Range. The species underwent a sudden, drastic population decline during the 1990s, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and may be extinct.

The Pinche Range

The Pinche Range (Serranía del Pinche in Spanish) is located in south-western Colombia (Cauca department).

The gorgeted puffleg (Eriocnemis isabellae) is a type of hummingbird confined to the cloud forests of the Pinche Range.

The Toisán Range

The Toisán Range (Serranía de Toisán in Spanish) is located in north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas province).

Orcés’ long-tongued bat (Lonchophylla orcesi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1985.

Cerro El Ahuaca

Cerro El Ahuaca is an isolated granite mountain located in southern Ecuador (Loja province).

The El Ahuaca viscacha (Lagidium ahuacaense) is a type of rodent confined to rocky habitats on El Ahuaca, where the total population may number only around a few dozen. It is threatened by fires and cattle grazing.

The Cordillera Central

The Cordillera Central (Central Cordillera) begins in northwestern Colombia (Bolívar department) and extends south through the central-west in Antioquia, Risaralda, Caldas, Tolima, Valle del Cauca, and Huila departments before finally joining up with the Cordillera Oriental in Cauca and Putomayo departments. It has undergone almost complete environmental destruction. Surviving montane forest areas are now highly fragmented and isolated, and pre-montane forest cover is estimated to be just 3–4 per cent of its original extent.

Handley’s slender mouse opossum (Marmosops handleyi) is confined to a very small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department).

The Antioquia sac-winged bat (Saccopteryx antioquensis) is known only from two specimens collected during the 1990s from north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The species is evidently threatened by loss of habitat and disturbance of its roosting sites.

Fuertes’ parrot (Hapalopsittaca fuertesi) was long known only from a few specimens collected in 1911 from western Colombia. Apart from a few possible sightings between 1980 and 2000 in the departments of Quindío, Risaralda, and Tolima the species remained otherwise unknown until rediscovered in 2002. It is currently known from two localities, where in 2014 the total population was estimated at less than 250. Velez’s rusty-faced parrot (H. amazonina velezi) is found patchily in western and south-western Colombia (Caldas, Risaralda, and Tolima departments), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The rufous-fronted parakeet (Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons) is found widely but patchily within the Cordillera Central of western and south-western Colombia, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The brown-banded antpitta (Gralleria milleri) is also divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (G. m. milleri) is found patchily in central-western Colombia (Caldas, Risaralda, Quindío, and Tolima departments), where it is threatened by loss of habitat. Giles’ brown-banded antpitta (G. m. gilesi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1878 from north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). With no habitat now left to support it the subspecies is most likely extinct. The northern bicoloured antipitta (G. rufocinerea rufocinerea) is confined to a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia and Caldas departments). The southern bicoloured antpitta (G. r. romeroana) is known from western Colombia (Caldas, Tolima, Valle del Cauca, Cauca, Huila, Nariño, and Putomayo departments) and north-central Ecuador (Sucumbíos province), but has been extirpated from many areas.

The chestnut-capped piha (Lipaugus weberi) is a type of cotinga now confined to a few forest patches within a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). It presumably once ranged much further.

The Antioquia brushfinch (Atlapetes blancae) was long known only from three specimens collected in 1971 from north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). It was rediscovered in 2018 in a small area near Medellín, where the total population is thought to be less than 50.

The Tolima blossom-crown hummingbird (Anthocephala berlepschi) is known from a few localities in western Colombia (Quindío, Tolima, and Huila departments).

The buffy helmetcrest (Oxypogon stuebelii) is a type of hummingbird confined to Los Nevados National Park in western Colombia.

Daniel’s largescale lizard (Alopoglossus danieli) is known only from a few specimens collected from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Remaining habitat is highly fragmented and degraded.

Andersson’s lightbulb lizard (Riama columbiana) is known only from a small area of western Colombia (Caldas, Risaralda, Quindío, and probably Antioquia departments).

The two-lined ground snake (Atractus biseriatus) is known only from its original collection in 1941 from west-central Colombia (Caldas department). Just a few small patches of forest now remain. The blackbelly ground snake (A. melanogaster) is known only from a small number of historical records originating from western Colombia (Caldas and Tolima departments). The San Agustín ground snake (A. apophis) is known only from a single specimen collected from the San Agustín Archeological Park in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). The Acevedo ground snake (A. atratus) is known only from three specimens collected from two localities in south-western Colombia (Cauca department).

The Mesopotamia beaked toad (Rhinella rostrata) is known only from two specimens collected in 1914 in northwestern Colombia (Antioquia department). It is almost certainly extinct. The Santa Rita beaked toad (R. macrorhina), Nicefor’s beaked toad (R. nicefori) and Ruiz’s beaked toad (R. ruizi) are all confined to a few localities within the Cordillera Central, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Herveo plump toad (Osornophryne percrassa) is found patchily in western Colombia, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.

Several species of stubfoot toad (Atelopus) endemic to the Cordillera Central are seriously threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis. The Sonsón stubfoot toad (A. sonsonensis) is known only from its original collection in 1996 from north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Subsequent surveys have failed to record it, and the species may be extinct. The Quimbaya stubfoot toad (A. quimbaya) was historically common within its relatively small range in central-western Colombia (Risaralda, Quindío and Caldas departments), but suffered a massive decline during the 1990s and may now be extinct. Serna’s stubfoot toad (A. sernai) is known from two or three isolated localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Last recorded in 2001, it may be extinct. The Malvasa stubfoot toad (A. eusebianus) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Valle del Cauca and Cauca departments). Last recorded in 2005, it may be extinct. The simulated stubfoot toad (A. simulatus) was historically common within the Cordillera Central but is now known only from two small, widely separated areas in the departments of Cauca, Huila, and Tolima, where it is very rare.

The Cauca tree frog (Hyloscirtus caucanus) is confined to a small area of south-western Colombia (Cauca and Huila departments).

Johnson’s horned tree frog (Hemiphractus johnsoni) is known for certain only from two localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia and Caldas departments).

The Inza giant glass frog (Centrolene paezorum) and the Páramo Guanacas giant glass frog (C. guanacarum) are each known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). Both are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.

The spotted glass frog (Sachatamia punctulata) is confined to a few localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia, Caldas, and Tolima departments), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Florencia glass frog (Nymphargus spilotus) is known only from Florencia National Park in north-western Colombia (Caldas department). The rosy glass frog (N. rosada) is found widely but patchily in north-western Colombia. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Sonsón frog (Atopophrynus syntomopus) is known only from three specimens collected in a small area of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The species’ habitat has been completely degraded, and it may well be extinct.

Susatama’s Cochran frog (Rulyrana susatamai) is confined to a few localities in north-western and western Colombia (Antioquia, Caldas, Huila, and Tolima departments).

The Falán poison dart frog (Andinobates tolimensis) and Doris Swanson’s poison dart frog (A. dorisswansonae) are each confined to a single forest fragment in western Colombia (Tolima department). Dale Swanson’s poison dart frog (A. daleswansoni) is confined to a small area of northwestern Colombia (Caldas department). The opisthomelas poison dart frog (A. opisthomelas) is confined to a few localities in north-western Colombia (Caldas and Antioquia departments). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

Borja’s rocket frog (Hyloxalus borjai) and the Quebrada La Ayura rocket frog (H. excisus) are each known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The Malvasa rocket frog (H. pinguis) is known from two localities in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). Ramos’ rocket frog (H. ramosi) is found patchily in northwestern Colombia (Antioquia and Caldas departments). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

Thornton’s rocket frog (Colostethus thorntoni) is known from a few scattered localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department).

The Boqueron Andes frog (Niceforonia latens) and the páramo Andes frog (N. adenobrachia) are both found patchily in western and north-western Colombia (Antioquia, Caldas, Quindío, and Tolima departments), where they are threatened by loss of their páramo (high-elevation grassland) and cloud forest habitat.

A great many species of robber frog (Pristimantis) endemic to the Cordillera Central are threatened by loss of habitat. The sugar robber frog (P. phragmipleuron) is known only from three specimens collected from what is now the city of Medellín, in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Last seen in 1983, the species has most likely been driven extinct by urbanization. The Argelia robber frog (P. bernali) is known only from one locality in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Last collected in 1981, it is possibly extinct. The Los Patos robber frog (P. scoloblepharus) is known only from three localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). The spotted robber frog (P. maculosus) is known only from a few localities in north-western Colombia (Caldas, Antioquia, and Quindío departments). The taciturn robber frog (P. taciturnus) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Cauca department). The Caldas robber frog (P. veletis) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Caldas department). The Puerto Suárez robber frog (P. fetosus) is known only from a few localities in north-western Colombia (Caldas department). The lemur robber frog (P. lemur) is confined to a few scattered localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia and Caldas departments). The Las Hermosas robber frog (P. simoteriscus) is confined to a small area of central-western Colombia (Tolima, Quindío, and Valle del Cauca departments). Serna’s robber frog (P. dorsopictus) is confined to a few localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia, Caldas, and Tolima departments). The adult robber frog (P. parectatus) and the yellow-green robber frog (P. helvolus) are both found sporadically in north-western Colombia (Caldas and Antioquia departments). The Los Torrentes robber frog (P. torrenticola), camouflaged robber frog (P. lichenoides) and the Florencia robber frog (P. tribulosus) are all known only from the vicinity of the Florencia Forest in north-western Colombia (Caldas department). The accustomed robber frog (P. suetus) is found in a few scattered cloud forest localities in Caldas and Antioquia departments.

The unexpected robber frog (Strabomantis necopinus) is confined to a few widely spaced localities in western and northwestern Colombia.

The Antioquia caecilian (Caecilia antioquiaensis) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department), but may occur more widely.

Parker’s caecilian (Epicrionops parkeri) is known from a few localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department).

The Cordillera Oriental

The Cordillera Oriental is the widest of the three main north/ south branches of the northern Andes. Beginning at the intersection of the two branches of the Venezuelan Andes in northcentral Colombia (Norte de Santander department), it first extends east into Arauca department and then turns southwest again through central Colombia (Santander, Boyacá, Casanare, Cundinamarca, Tolima, Meta, Huila, Caquetá, and Putomayo departments). From there it continues to run parallel with the Cordillera Occidental through central Ecuador (Sucumbíos, Napo, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Morona Santiago, and Zamora Chincipe provinces), central Peru (Amazonas, San Martín, Huanaco, Pasco, Junín, Ayacucho, Cusco, Apurímac, Madre de Dios, and Puno departments), and into central Bolivia (La Paz and Cochamamba departments).

The yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Oreonax flavicauda) is confined to a few scattered areas of humid montane forest on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in north-western Peru (Amazonas and San Martín departments). It was first described by the explorer Alexander von Humboldt in 1812, based solely on three skins that were being used as saddle covers by Peruvian muleteers. Other than two specimens collected in 1925 and three more the following year, however, nothing further was known of it until 1974, with the finding of an individual being kept as a pet in the town of Pedro Ruiz Gallo. This in turn led to the discovery of the wild population two years later. Since then there has been significant habitat destruction in the region and the species remains one of the rarest of all Neotropical primates.

The Andean night monkey (Aotus miconax) is a nocturnal species confined to cloud forests in north-western Peru (Amazonas, Huánuco, La Libertad, San Martín, and possibly Loreto departments), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

Chuny’s dwarf brocket deer (Mazama chunyi) is known from south-eastern Peru (Junín, Cusco, and Puno departments) and western Bolivia (La Paz and Cochabamba departments), where it is threatened by habitat destruction.

The brown prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou vestitus) is known only from a few specimens collected from two localities in west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca and Tolima departments). Last recorded in 1925, it was rediscovered in 2000.

The Quechuan hocicudo (Oxymycterus hucucha) is a type of rodent confined to a small area of central Bolivia (Cochabamba and Santa Cruz departments).

The Sacha guinea pig (Cavia patzelti) is known only from a single locality in the highlands of Mount Chimborazo, an inactive stratovolcano in central Ecuador (Chimborazo province).

Anderson’s mouse opossum (Marmosa andersoni) is known only from three localities in southern Peru (Cusco department).

The Junín slender mouse opossum (Marmosops juninensis) is known only from the Chanchamayo Valley of central Peru (Junín department).

The Sangay shrew opossum (Caenolestes sangay) is known from a few localities in south-central and south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe provinces).

Tate’s rice rat (Hylaeamys tatei) is known only from three localities in central Ecuador.

The woolly headed spiny tree rat (Mesomys leniceps) is known only from two small areas of montane cloud forest in north-western Peru (Amazonas department).

Barbara Brown’s brush-tailed rat (Isothrix barbarabrownae) is known only from a single cloud forest within the Manu Biosphere Reserve in south-eastern Peru (Cusco department).

The Machu Picchu arboreal chinchilla rat (Cuscomys oblativa) is a cat-sized species long known only from two skulls collected from an Inca burial site in 1912 in south-eastern Peru (Cusco department). It was thought to be extinct until a living specimen was photographed near Machu Picchu in 2009.

The Bolivian chinchilla rat (Abrocoma boliviensis) is known only from two specimens collected in a small area of central Bolivia (Santa Cruz department).

The montane bamboo rat (Dactylomys peruanus) is known only from two widely separated localities in southeastern Peru (Puno department) and western Bolivia (La Paz department).

Stolzmann’s crab-eating rat (Ichthyomys stolzmanni) is known only from a few localities spread over a wide area of Ecuador and western Peru.

Four species of Oldfield mouse (Thomasomys) endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. The Ucucha Oldfield mouse (T. ucucha) is known only from a small area of northern Ecuador (Carchi, Pichincha, and Napo provinces). The Apeco Oldfield mouse (T. apeco) and the large-eared Oldfield mouse (T. macrotis) are both known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (San Martín department). Rosalinda’s Oldfield mouse (T. rosalinda) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Amazonas department).

The yellow-bellied climbing mouse (Rhipidomys ochrogaster) was long known only from its original collection in 1901 from south-eastern Peru (Puno department). It was rediscovered in 2010.

The silent grass mouse (Akodon surdus) is known only from the vicinity of Machu Picchu in south-eastern Peru (Cusco department). The Tarija grass mouse (A. pervalens) is known only from a few specimens collected in south-central Bolivia (Chuquisaca and Tarija departments), and possibly northern Argentina.

The Ecuadorian grass mouse (Neomicroxus latebricola) is known only from a few localities in northern Ecuador (Pichincha, Napo, and Tungurahua provinces).

The Cundinamarca small-footed shrew (Cryptotis brachyonyx) is known only from four specimens collected from two localities in west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca department), the most recent record being from 1925.

Koepcke’s hairy-nosed bat (Gardnerycteris koepckeae) is known only from a single locality in south-central Peru (Cusco department).

The lesser yellow-shouldered bat (Sturnira nana) is known only from a small area of north-western Peru (Amazonas department) and south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province).

The Incan little mastiff bat (Mormopterus phrudus) is known only from the vicinity of Machu Picchu in southeastern Peru (Cusco department).

Melissa’s yellow-eared bat (Vampyressa melissa) is found over a wide area of western Colombia, eastern Ecuador and north-central Peru, but is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat.

The red-fronted macaw (Ara rubrogenys) is confined to a small area of south-central Bolivia (Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Potosí, and Santa Cruz departments). In 2018 the total population was estimated at less than 600.

The red-faced parrot (Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops) is found patchily in southern Ecuador (Morona Santiago, Azuay, and Loja provinces) and north-western Peru (Piura and Cajamarca departments). Des Murs’ rusty-faced parrot (H. amazonina amazonina) is found patchily in north-western Venezuela (Táchira state) and in northern and central Colombia (Cundinamarca, Boyacá, and, at least historically, Norte de Santander and Santander departments). There have been additional possible records from Huila department and from northern Ecuador as well. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The brown-breasted parakeet (Pyrrhura calliptera) was historically widespread within the Cordillera Oriental of northern and central Colombia, but is now confined to a few scattered pockets due to habitat destruction and persecution as a crop pest. The white-necked parakeet (P. albipectus) is known from three small areas in south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe provinces) and adjacent north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The yellow-browed toucanet (Aulacorhynchus huallagae) is known only from two localities in north-central Peru (San Martín department). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The horned curassow (Pauxi unicornis) is a large, predominantly black bird with a distinctive casque on its forehead. It is known to occur only in the adjacent Amboró and Carrasco national parks in central Bolivia and a few other areas, where it is rapidly decreasing in number due to hunting and loss of habitat. The Mérida helmeted curassow (P. pauxi pauxi) was historically common throughout the Northern Andes has been extirpated from many parts of its former range due to habitat destruction and hunting. Today, only scattered populations survive, mainly within national parks in the Mérida Cordillera and the Cordillera Oriental of northern Colombia and western Venezuela.

Taczanowski’s tinamou (Nothoprocta taczanowskii) is a type of small ratite bird confined to southern Peru (Junín, Cuzco, Apurímac, Ayacucho, and Puno departments) and western Bolivia (La Paz department). It is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

The lead-bellied rail (Rallus semiplumbeus) is divided into two subspecies. The Peruvian lead-bellied rail (R. s. peruvianus) is known only from its original collection in 1886 from an undefined locality in Peru. It is most likely extinct. The Bogatá lead-bellied rail (R. s. semiplumbeus) is confined to a small area of central Colombia (Cundinamarca and Boyacá departments), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.

The gorgeted wood quail (Odontophorus strophium) is found in a few scattered areas of northern and north-central Colombia (Santander, Boyacá, and Cundinamarca departments), where it is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. The variegated black-fronted wood quail (O. atrifrons variegatus) is confined to two small, disjunct areas of north-central Colombia (Norte de Santander and Santander departments).

The golden-backed mountain tanager (Cnemathraupis aureodorsalis) is confined to a few areas of elfin forest in north-central Peru (San Martín, La Libertad, and Huánuco departments).

The straw-backed tanager (Tangara argyrofenges) is a generally uncommon species found patchily in south-eastern Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

Heller’s thistletail (Asthenes helleri) is confined to montane forest and high-altitude grasslands in southern Peru (Cusco and Puno departments) and western Bolivia (La Paz department). The Huancavelica pale-taled thistletail (A. huancavelicae huancavelicae) is confined to a small area of south-western Peru (Ancash, Huancavelica, and Ayacucho departments).

The Inquisivi spinetail (Cranioleuca henricae) is a type of ovenbird known only from two localities in western Bolivia (La Paz department). The Marcapata spinetail (C. marcapatae) is confined to a small area of south-eastern Peru (Cuzco department). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The russet-mantled spinetail (Thripophaga berlepschi) is known from three small, disjunct localities in north-western Peru (Amazonas, Piura, and San Martín departments).

The white-browed tit spinetail (Leptasthenura xenothorax) is found patchily within a small area of south-central Peru. In 2002 the total population was estimated at between 500 and 1500.

The bay-vented cotinga (Doliornis sclateri) is a rare type of passerine bird confined to west-central Peru (San Martín, Huánuco, Pasco, Junín, and La Libertad departments).

The Apolo cotinga (Phibalura boliviana) is a type of passerine bird that was long thought to be extinct until its rediscovery within a small forest fragment in Madidi National Park, western Bolivia (La Paz department) in 2000.

The scimitar-winged piha (Lipaugus uropygialis) is a type of cotinga found sporadically in southern Peru (Madre de Dios, Cusco, and Puno departments) and central-western Bolivia (La Paz, Cochabamba, and Santa Cruz departments). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The ash-throated antwren (Herpsilochmus parkeri) is known only from a small area of north-western Peru (San Martín and Loreto departments). Three subspecies of yellow-breasted antwren (H. axillaris), previously discussed, are endemic to the Cordillera Oriental, where they are threatened by loss of habitat. The nominate form (H. a. axillaris) is confined to south-eastern Peru. The equatorial yellow-breasted antwren (H. a. aequatorialis) is found in eastern Ecuador and far north-western Peru. The Peruvian yellow-breasted antwren (H. a. puncticeps) is confined to northwestern and central-western Peru.

Apolinar’s wren (Cistothorus apolinari) is found patchily in west-central Colombia (Boyacá and Cundinamarca departments). Some subpopulations are known to have become extirpated over the past few decades due to loss of habitat.

Nicéforo’s wren (Thryophilus nicefori) is a rare species confined to a few higher altitude dry forest patches in northwestern Colombia.

The Cundinamarca antpitta (Grallaria kaestneri) is found patchily within a small area of west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca department), where it is threatened by loss of habitat. The rusty-tinged antpitta (G. przewalskii) is found in north-western Peru (Amazonas, San Martín, and La Libertad departments). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The ochre-fronted antpitta (Grallaricula ochraceifrons) is a rare species known only from three localities in northwestern Peru (San Martín and Amazonas departments).

Lulu’s tody-flycatcher (Poecilotriccus luluae) is a rare species known only from a few localities in north-western Peru (San Martín and Amazonas departments).

The Cochabamba mountain finch (Poospiza garleppi) is a rare species found patchily in west-central Bolivia (Cochabamba, Potosí, and Chuquisaca departments).

The black-spectacled brushfinch (Atlapetes melanopsis) is confined to a few localities in southern Peru (Huancavelica, Junín, and Ayacucho departments).

The royal cinclodes (Cinclodes aricomae) is a type of passerine bird confined to south-eastern Peru and western Bolivia. Historically common, it has disappeared from much of its former range due to habitat destruction and degradation.

The black Inca (Coeligena prunellei) is a type of hummingbird found patchily in north-western Colombia (Santander, Boyacá, and Cundinamarca departments).

Aparicio’s tree iguana (Liolaemus aparicioi) is known only from a single valley in western Bolivia (La Paz department), where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The greater ornate whorltail iguana (Stenocercus praeornatus) is known only from a single locality in central Peru (Junín department). The Chanchamayo Valley whorltail iguana (S. torquatus) is confined to a small area of central Peru (Junín and Pasco departments).

The Tungurahua lightbulb lizard (Riama balneator) is known only from Tungurahua Volcano in central Ecuador (Chimborazo and Tungurahua provinces). Petrors’ lightbulb lizard (R. petrorum) is known only from a small area of southeastern Ecaudor (Morona Santiago province). Kizirian’s lightbulb lizard (R. stigmatoral) is confined to a small area of south-central Ecuador (Azuay and Morona Santiago provinces). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Chaglla lightbulb lizard (Petracola labioocularis) is known only from a single locality in central Peru (Huánuco department).

Ruiz’s anole (Anolis ruizii) is known from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central in north-central Colombia (Boyacá and Casanare departments).

Jacquelin’s bush anole (Polychrus jacquelinae) is known only from a small area of north-western Peru (La Libertad department).

The Pamplona anadia (Anadia pamplonensis) is a type of lizard known only from a small area of north-western Colombia (Norte de Santander department), possibly extending into adjacent western Venezuela (Táchira state). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

Boulenger’s whiptail lizard (Contomastix vittata) is known from a few localities in western Bolivia (Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, and Potosí departments).

The Vereda Portachuelo teiid (Cercosaura hypnoides) is a type of lizard known only from a single locality in the Cordillera Oriental of central Colombia (Meta department).

The strange pholidobolus (Pholidobolus anomalus) is a type of lizard known only from a single locality in southern Peru (Cusco department).

Peters’ coral snake (Micrurus petersi) is known only from two specimens collected from cloud forests in south-central Ecuador (Morona Santiago province).

The San Juan false coral snake (Arcanumophis problematicus) is known only from its original collection in the 1980s from south-eastern Peru (Puno department).

The little-scaled ground snake (Atractus pauciscutatus) is known only from its original collection within the Chanchamayo Valley of south-central Peru in 1943 (Junín department). The indistinct ground snake (A. indistinctus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Norte de Santander department). The central Ecuadorian ground snake (A. ecuadorensis) is known only from two specimens collected in central Ecuador. The variegated ground snake (A. variegatus) and the black-ventered ground snake (A. nigriventris) are each known only from a small area of north-central Colombia (Boyacá department). The striped ground snake (A. vertebrolineatus) is known only from a small area of northwestern Colombia (Norte de Santander and Cesar departments). Dunn’s saphenophis snake (Saphenophis antioquiensis) is known for certain only from a single specimen collected in central Colombia (Antioquia department). A second specimen collected from a nearby locality may also be referable to this species.

The Apurímac woodland racer (Drymoluber apurimacensis) is known only from a small area of southern Peru (Apurímac department), where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for use in ‘traditional medicine’.

The Alausi centipede snake (Tantilla andinista) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1980s from central Ecuador (Chimborazo province). Only patches of habitat from that locality remain today.

The Santander blind snake (Trilepida nicefori) is known only from two localities in north-central Colombia (Santander department).

The Junín blind snake (Epictia peruviana) is known only from a single locality in central Peru (Junín department).

The Abra Malaga toad (Nannophryne corynetes) is confined to a small area of south-central Peru (Cusco department).

The Skoptes toad (Truebella skoptes) is known only from a single locality in south-central Peru (Junín department). The Ayacucho toad (T. tothastes) is known from two isolated localities in south-central Peru (Ayacucho department). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Quilindaña plump toad (Osornophryne antisana) is known only from a few localities in north-central Ecuador (Napo province). The Pimampiro plump toad (O. puruanta) is confined to a small area of northern Ecuador (Imbabura and Sucumbíos provinces). The Guacamayo plump toad (O. guacamayo) is known only from two disjunct localities in southwestern Colombia (Putumayo department) and north-eastern Ecuador (Napo province). All are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.

A great many species of stubfoot toad (Atelopus) from the Cordillera Oriental have become extinct or are seriously threatened due to chytridiomycosis, pollution, drought, and habitat destruction. The La Victoria stubfoot toad (A. gigas) is known only from its original collection in 1970 from a single locality in southern Colombia (Nariño department). It is most likely extinct. The San Isidro stubfoot toad (A. pedimarmoratus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Cundinimarca department), where it was last recorded in 1963. The Santander stubfoot toad (A. monohernandezii) was historically known only from the Guanentá Alto Río Fonce Sanctuary in northern Colombia (Santander department). Last recorded in 1982, it is possibly extinct. The Meta stubfoot toad (A. minutulus) was historically known from two localities in central Colombia (Meta department). Last recorded in 1985, it is possibly extinct. The flat-spined stubfoot toad (A. planispina) was historically known from northern Ecuador (Napo province). Last recorded in 1985, it is possibly extinct. Orcés’ stubfoot toad (A. orcesi) was historically known only from a single locality in north-central Ecuador (Sucumbíos province). Last recorded in 1988, it is possibly extinct. The Volcán Galeras stubfoot toad (A. ardila) was historically known only from a small area of southern Colombia (Nariño and Putumayo departments). Last seen in 1989, it is possibly extinct. Coloma’s stubfoot toad (A. podocarpus) was historically known from a small area of southeastern Ecuador (Loja and Zamora Chinchipe provinces) and north-western Peru (Piura department). Last recorded in 1994, it is possibly extinct. The Bogatá stubfoot toad (A. subornatus) was historically known from two localities some 20 km apart in north-western Colombia (Cundimarca department). Last recorded in 1993, it is possibly extinct. The Pastuso stubfoot toad (A. pastuso) was historically known from several sites in south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and northern Ecuador (Carchi and Imbabura provinces). Last seen in 1993 after undergoing a drastic decline, it is possibly extinct. The painted stubfoot toad (A. pictiventris) was historically known from a single locality in western Colombia (Valle del Cauca department). Last recorded in 1996, it is possibly extinct. The Los Picachos stubfoot toad (A. petriruizi) was historically known from a small area of Los Picachos National Park in central Colombia (Caquetá department). Last recorded in 1998, it is possibly extinct. The Alban stubfoot toad (A. farci) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Cundicmarca department), where it was last recorded in 2003. Peters’ stubfoot toad (A. petersi) is known from central Ecuador (Napo and Chimorazo provinces), where it has suffered significant declines and may be extinct. The Huila stubfoot toad (A. ebenoides) was historically common within an area of south-western Colombia (Cauca and Huila departments). The species underwent a severe decline during the mid-1990s and is now possibly extinct. The Angelito stubfoot toad (A. angelito) was historically known only from two widely separated localities in south-western Colombia (Cauca department) and north-western Ecuador (Carchi province). Last seen in 2000, it is most likely extinct. The Laguna de Guitara stubfoot toad (A. guitarraensis) is known only from a single locality in west-central Colombia (Meta department). The Laguna Toreadora stubfoot toad (A. nanay) is known only from a small area of páramo in south-central Ecuador (Azuay province). The species suffered an extreme decline due to chytridiomycosis in the late 1980s from which it has not recovered, and is additionally threatened by habitat destruction and introduced species. The Cuenca stubfoot toad (A. bomolochos) was historically known from a small area of south-central Ecuador (Azuay, Cañar, and Loja provinces), but is now known only from a single locality in Azuay province. The La Arboleda stubfoot toad (A. muisca) is known only from Chingaza National Park in west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca and Meta departments). The Carpanta stubfoot toad (A. mandingues) is known only from the Carpanta Biological Reserve in west-central Colombia (Cundimarca department). The Rio Chilchos stubfoot toad (A. pyrodactylus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (San Martín department). The Amazonas stubfoot toad (A. epikeisthos) is known only from two localities (some 60 km apart) in north-western Peru (Amazonas department). Lozano’s stubfoot toad (A. lozanoi) is known only from a few localities in north-central Colombia (Cundinamarca and Boyacá departments). The Oxapampa stubfoot toad (A. oxapampae) is confined to three localities in central Peru (Pasco department). The Upper Amazon stubfoot toad (A. seminiferus) is known only from a few localities in northwestern Peru (San Martín department). Mittermeier’s stubfoot toad (A. mittermeieri) is confined to a few localities in north-central Colombia (Santander department). The Gualecenita stubfoot toad (A. nepiozomus) is confined to a few localities in south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe and Morona Santiago provinces). Boulenger’s stubfoot toad (A. boulengeri) is confined to a few localities in south-eastern Ecuador (Loja and Morona Santiago provinces). Marinkelle’s stubfoot toad (A. marinkellei) is confined to a few localities in north-central Colombia (Boyacá department). The handshaped stubfoot toad (A. palmatus) is confined to a small area of central Ecuador (Tungurahua and Pastaza provinces). Rivero’s stubfoot toad (A. andinus) is confined to a few localities in central Peru (San Martín, Loreto, and Huánuco departments). The tricolour stubfoot toad (A. tricolor) is confined to south-eastern Peru and western and west-central Bolivia.

The Tandayapa Andes toad (Rhaebo olallai) is known only from two localities in north-western Ecuador (Pichincha and Imbabura provinces). The Pichincha population is thought to have been extirpated before 1970, and the remaining one is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

Several species of beaked toad (Rhinella) endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened mainly by loss of habitat. The warty beaked toad (R. multiverrucosa) is known only from the Paucartambo de Pasco Valley of central Peru (Pasco department). Cristina’s beaked toad (R. cristinae) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Caquetá department). The Chavin beaked toad (R. chavin) is confined to a small area of central Peru (Huánuco department). The tree-climbing beaked toad (R. arborescandens) is known only from three isolated localities in north-western Peru (Amazonas and San Martín departments). The Cochabamba beaked toad (R. amboroensis) is known for certain only from a single locality in central Bolivia (Cochabamba department). The Quechua beaked toad (R. quechua) is confined to a small area of west-central Bolivia (Cochabamba and Santa Cruz departments). Isern’s beaked toad (R. iserni) is confined to a small area of southcentral Peru (Junín department). The Manu beaked toad (R. manu) is known only from two isolated localities in south-central Peru (Cusco department). Justiniano’s beaked toad (R. justinianoi) is confined to west-central Bolivia (Cochabamba, Santa Cruz and La Paz departments). Vellard’s beaked toad (R. vellardi) is known only from three isolated localities in north-western Peru (Cajamarca and La Libertad departments).

Nicefor’s frog (Hyla nicefori) is known only from a single specimen collected from north-central Colombia (Casanare department) in the 1940s. There has been extensive habitat destruction since at this locality.

Several tree frogs of the genus Hyloscirtus endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat and, possibly, chytridiomycosis. The Morona Santiago tree frog (H. pacha) is known only from two streams within a small area of south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago province). The Rio Chingual Valley tree frog (H. pantostictus) is known only from a small area on the south-western Colombia/north-central Ecuador border. Lynch’s tree frog (H. lynchi) is known from two isolated localities in north-central Colombia (Santander department). The Rio Luisito tree frog (H. piceigularis) is known from two or three localities in north-western Colombia (Cundinamarca and Santander departments). The Charta tree frog (H. denticulentus) is known from two small areas of north-central Colombia (Boyacá and Santander departments). Stauffers’ tree frog (H. staufferorum) is known only from a few localities in north-central Ecuador (Napo and Pastaza provinces). The Papallacta tree frog (H. psarolaimus) is found widely but patchily in south-western Colombia and north-central Ecuador. The flat-legged Andes tree frog (H. platydactylus) is known from a few localities in western Venezuela (Barinas, Mérida, and Táchira states) and northern Colombia (Norte de Santander department).

The Ayachuco gladiator tree frog (Boana palaestes) is known only from a few localities in south-central Peru (Ayachuco and Cusco departments).

Three species of leaf frog (Callimedusa) endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. The purple and orange leaf frog (C. duellmani) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Amazonas department). The Agua Rica leaf frog (C. ecuatoriana) is confined to a small area of south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). The orange-spotted leaf frog (C. perinesos) is known disjunctly from southwestern Colombia (Caquetá department) and northern Ecuador (Napo and, at least formerly, Sucumbíos provinces).

Several species of marsupial frog (Gastrotheca) endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatned by loss of habitat and possibly chytridiomycosis. The Wayqecha marsupial frog (G. antoniiochoai) is known only from the Kosñipata Valley in southern Peru (Cusco department). The helmeted marsupial frog (G. galeata) is confined to a small area of northwestern Peru (Piura department). The Pacchamana marsupial frog (G. pacchamama) is confined to a small area of southern Peru (Ayacucho department). Ruiz’s marsupial frog (G. ruizi) is confined to the Sibundoy Valley in south-western Colombia (Putumayo department). The Cusco marsupial frog (G. excubitor) is confined to a few localities in south-eastern Peru (Cusco department). The Lago de Los Cóndores marsupial frog (G. ossilaginis) is known only from two localities in northwestern Peru (San Martín department). The Esperanza marsupial frog (G. phalarosa) is known only from a small area of north-western Peru (San Martín department). The La Siberia marsupial frog (G. lauzuricae) is known only from a single locality in central Bolivia (Cochabamba department). Schmidt’s marsupial frog (G. splendens) is known only from two specimens collected in Amboró National Park, central Bolivia (Santa Cruz department). Rebecca’s marsupial frog (G. rebeccae) is known only from a small area of southern Peru (Ayacucho department). The Pampa Hermosa marsupial frog (G. atympana) is known only from the Pamap Hermosa National Sanctuary, within the Río Chanchamayo Valley of south-central Peru (Junín department). The Papallacta marsupial frog (G. orophylax) is confined to a small area of southern Colombia (Nariño and Putumayo departments) and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Sucumbíos, and Napo provinces). The Abra de Zamora marsupial frog (G. psychrophila) is confined to a small area of southern Ecuador (Loja and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). The El Tambo marsupial frog (G. lateonota) is known from a few disjunct localities in south-western Ecuador (El Oro province) and north-western Peru (Piura department).

The Napo horned frog (Ceratophrys testudo) is confined to a single locality in central Ecuador (Napo province).

The Ashkapara Yungas frog (Yunganastes ashkapara) and Werner’s Yungas frog (Y. bisignatus) are both known only from small areas of montane forest in western Bolivia (La Paz and Cochabamba departments), where they are threatened by habitat destruction.

Several species of giant glass frog (Centrolene) endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis. Sanchez’s giant glass frog (C. sanchezi) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Caquetá department). The Santander giant glass frog (C. acanthidiocephalum) is known only from a small area of northern Colombia (Santander department). The Boyacá giant glass frog (C. petrophilum) is confined to a few localities in north-central Colombia (Boyacá department). The lonely giant glass frog (C. solitaria) is known only from a small area of south-western Colombia (Huila and Caquetá departments). The Alban giant glass frog (C. daidalea) is confined to a small area of northern Colombia (Cundinamarca and Santander departments). The Rioja giant glass frog (C. lemniscata) is known only from two localities in north-western Peru (San Martín and Amazonas departments). The Amazonian giant glass frog (C. pipilata) is known only from a small area of Ecuador (Napo and Sucumbíos provinces), where it is threatened by the construction of a hydroelectric project. Mueller’s giant glass frog (C. muelleri) is known only from three localities in north-western Peru (Amazonas department). Medem’s giant glass frog (C. medemi) is found disjunctly in south-western Colombia and northern Ecuador.

The Esmeralda glass frog (Hyalinobatrachium esmeralda) is confined to north-central Colombia (Boyacá and Casanare departments).

Several glass frogs of the genus Nymphargus endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis. Trueb’s glass frog (N. truebae) is known only from the Kosñipata Valley of south-eastern Peru (Cusco department). The species underwent a sudden, massive population decline between 2000 and 2005 and is most likely extinct. Vicente Rueda’s glass frog (N. vicenteruedai) is known only from a single locality in northern Colombia (Santander department). The mountain nymph glass frog (N. oreonympha) and the Florencia glass frog (N. nephelophila) are both known only from a single locality in southwestern Colombia (Caquetá department). The Ayacucho glass frog (N. phenax) is known only from two widely separated localities in southern Peru (Ayacucho department). Wiley’s glass frog (N. wileyi) is known only from the Yanayacu Biological Station in northern Ecuador (Napo province). The Santa Rosa glass frog (N. megacheirus) is found disjunctly in northern Ecuador (Napo province) and southern Colombia (Putumayo department). The anomalous glass frog (N. anomalus) is known only from three localities in northern Ecuador (Napo department). The San Martín glass frog (N. chancas) is known only from a few localities in northern Peru (San Martín department). Cochran’s glass frog (N. cochranae) is found widely but patchily in central Ecuador. The siren glass frog (N. siren) is known widely but very sporadically in northern Ecuador, southern Peru and possibly southern Colombia.

McDiarmid’s Cochran frog (Rulyrana mcdiarmidi) is known from a few localities in south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe provinces) and north-eastern Peru (Cajamarca department). The Adiazeta Cochran frog (R. adiazeta) is known from a few localities in north-western Colombia (Cundinamarca, Santander, and Tolima departments).

Taylor’s Cochran frog (Cochranella phryxa) is known only from a single locality in western Bolivia (La Paz department).

Collins’ poison dart frog (Andinobates abditus) is known only from the eastern slope of Reventador Volcano in northern Ecuador (Napo and possibly Sucumbíos provinces). The species suffered a massive population decline in the mid- 1980s, most likely due to chytridiomycosis, and no longer survives at this locality. Most likely extinct, it may exist in small numbers elsewhere. The Santander poison dart frog (A. virolinensis) is known only from a few localities in northern Colombia (Santander and Cundinamarca departments).

The variable poison dart frog (Ranitomeya variabilis) is known only from a small area of north-central Peru (San Martín department).

Several rocket frogs of the genus Hyloxalus endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat. Ruiz’s rocket frog (H. ruizi) is known only from a single locality in west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca department). Last recorded in 1979 despite numerous surveys, it is possibly extinct. Edwards’ rocket frog (H. edwardsi) is known only from two localities in west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca department), where it may be extinct. The Tungurahua rocket frog (H. marmoreoventris) is known only from a single locality in central Ecuador (Tungurahua province), where its habitat has since been destroyed. Last seen in the 1990s, it is possibly extinct. The Utcubamba rocket frog (H. utcubambensis) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Peru (Amazonas department). The San Vicente rocket frog (H. pumilus) is known only from a single locality in southcentral Ecuador (Azuay province). Cevallos Garcia’s rocket frog (H. cevallosi) is known only from a small area of eastcentral Ecuador (Pastaza and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). The Pailas rocket frog (H. peculiaris) is known only from a single locality in south-central Ecuador (Morona Santiago province). The Gualaceo rocket frog (H. parcus) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province). Mittermeier’s rocket frog (H. mittermeieri) is known only from two localities in north-eastern Peru (San Martín department). The coal black rocket frog (H. anthracinus) is known only from a few localities in south-central Ecuador. The Molinopampa rocket frog (H. leucophaeus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Amazonas department). The rusty rocket frog (H. aeruginosus) is known only from two localities within a small area of north-western Peru (San Martín department). Rivero’s rocket frog (H. idiomelus) is known from a few localities within a small area of north-western Peru (Amazonas and San Martín departments).

Kingsbury’s cryptic forest frog (Allobates kingsburyi) is confined to a narrow altitudinal zone in north-central Ecuador (Napo, Orellana, and Pastaza provinces).

Allessandro’s cryptic forest frog (A. alessandroi) is confined to a small area of south-eastern Peru (Cusco and Puno departments). The Pastaza cryptic forest frog (A. fratisenescus) is known only from a small area of central Ecuador (Pastaza province). The ornate cryptic forest frog (A. ornatus) is known only from a single locality in north-central Peru (San Martín department). All are threatened by habitat destruction.

Several Andes frogs of the genus Phrynopus endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation. The Vitoc Andes frog (P. peruanus) and the Maraynioc Andes frog (P. oblivius) are both known only from the Vitoc Valley of south-central Peru (Junín department). The Cascas Andes frog (P. montium) and the Junín Andes frog (P. juninensis) are both known only from a small area of southcentral Peru (Junín department). The Kotosh Andes frog (P. kotosh), Conchamarca Andes frog (P. heimorum), Kaunes’ Andes frog (P. kauneorum), Ambo Andes frog (P. barthlenae), Maraypata Andes frog (P. tautzorum), Horst Paul’s Andes frog (P. horstpauli), and Dagmar’s Andes frog (P. dagmarae) are all known only from a small area of central Peru (Huánuco department).

The Bagrecito Andes frog (Psychrophrynella bagrecito) is confined to a small area of south-eastern Peru (Cusco department).

Bustamente’s Andes frog (Bryophryne bustamantei), Marcapata Andes frog (B. zonalis) and the San Luis Andes frog (B. gymnotis) are all known only from a small area of south-central Peru (Cusco department).

Several Andes frogs of the genus Niceforonia endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by habitat destruction. The dwarf Andes frog (N. nana) is found disjunctly in northern Colombia (Boyacá, Santander, and Norte de Santander departments). The Monte Redondo Andes frog (N. columbiana) is known only from a single specimen collected during the late nineteenth century from an imprecise locality in north-western Colombia (Cundinamarca or Meta department). Cannatella’s Andes frog (N. lucida) is known only from a small area of south-central Peru (Ayacucho department). The Vereda El Centro Andes frog (N. aderca) is known only from a single specimen collected in 2001 in northern Colombia (Santander department). Peracca’s Andes frog (N. peraccai) is known from three localities in northern Ecuador (Napo and Carchi provinces). Duellman’s Andes frog (N. fallaciosa) is known only from two localities in northwestern Peru (Amazonas and San Martín departments). The brown Andes frog (N. brunnea) is confined to a small area of southern Colombia (Nariño department) and northern Ecuador (Carchi province). The Chachapoyas Andes frog (N. araiodactyla) is known only from two localities in northwestern Peru (Amazonas and San Martín department), while the Putumayo Andes frog (N. dolops) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Putumayo and Caquetá departments) and northern Ecuador (Napo province).

Boettger’s Andes frog (Microkayla boettgeri) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Puru (Puno department). The Carrasco Andes frog (M. adenopleura) is known only from two localities within Carrasco National Park, central Bolivia (Cochabamba department). Harvey’s Andes frog (M. harveyi) is known only from a single locality in west-central Bolivia (Cochabamba department). Kempff’s Andes frog (M. kempffi) is known only from a small area of central Bolivia (Cochabamba and Santa Cruz departments). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The yellow-spotted big-headed frog (Lynchius flavomaculatus) is known only from a few localities in south-eastern Ecuador (Loja, Napo, Morona Santiago, and Zamora Chinchipe provinces) and north-western Peru (Huancabamba department).

The Zongo robber frog (Oreobates zongoensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Zongo Valley of western Bolivia (La Paz department). Its habitat has since been entirely destroyed by the construction of a hydroelectric project and the species is most likely extinct. The orangebellied robber frog (O. pereger) is known only from two localities in southern Peru (Ayacucho department). The Ayacucho robber frog (O. ayacucho) is known only from a handful of specimens collected from a small area of southern Peru (Ayacucho department). Lundberg’s robber frog (O. lundbergi) is known only from a small area of southcentral Peru (Pasco department). The Caranavi robber frog (O. choristolemma) is known only from a single locality in western Bolivia (La Paz department).

Douglas’ robber frog (Tachiramantis douglasi) is known only from the Cordillera Oriental in north-western Colombia (Santander and Norte de Santander departments).

An extraordinary number of robber frogs of the genus Pristimantis endemic to the Cordillera Oriental are threatened by loss of habitat and other causes. The Rio Cosnipata robber frog (P. cosnipatae) was historically known only from the Kosñipata Valley in southern Peru (Cusco department). Last seen in 1999 despite numerous searches, it is most likely extinct. The Agua robber frog (P. pugnax) was historically known from south-western Colombia (Caquetá and Putumayo departments) and northern Ecuador (Sucumbíos and Napo provinces). The species suffered a massive decline in the 1990s, possibly involving chytridiomycosis, and if it survives at all it likely does so only in very small numbers. The Tarapoto robber frog (P. citriogaster) is known only from a single locality in north-central Peru (San Martín department). The Canchaque robber frog (P. anemerus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Piura department). The Ullilen robber frog (P. stictoboubonus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (San Martín department). The Finca La Antigua robber frog (P. ixalus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Colombia (Santander department). The Gámbita robber frog (P. spilogaster) appears to be confined to the area of the Guarentá Alto Río Fonce Sanctuary in north-western Colombia (Santander department). The El Estadero robber frog (P. actinolaimus) is known only from a small area of north-western Colombia (Caldas department). Jorge Velosa’s robber frog (P. jorgevelosai) is known from two localities in north-western Colombia (Santander department). Bearse’s robber frog (P. bearsei) is known only from a few localities in north-central Peru (Loreto department). Padre Carlos’ robber frog (P. padrecarlosi) is known only from a small area of north-western Colombia (Santander department). The Sitio Sisavita robber frog (P. batrachites) is known from a small area of north-western Colombia (Norte de Santader department). The two-coloured robber frog (P. bicolor) is confined to the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental in north-central Colombia (Cundinamarca and Santander departments). The Huicundo robber frog (P. huicundo) is known only from two localities in northern Ecuador (Sucumbíos and Carchi provinces). Ortiz’s robber frog (P. ortizi) is known only from two localities in northern Ecuador (Carchi and Imbabura provinces). The Nono robber frog (P. hamiotae) is known only from a small area of northern Ecuador (Pichincha province). The Napo robber frog (P. acerus) is known only from a small area of north-central Ecuador (Napo province). The Utcubamba robber frog (P. karcharias) is known only from a single locality in northwestern Peru (Amazonas department). The Río Quijos robber frog (P. cremnobates) is known only from the Río Quijos Valley in northern Ecuador (Napo province). The Río Pastaza robber frog (P. pastazensis) is known only from three localities in the upper Río Pastaza Valley in central Ecuador (Tungurahaua province). The Sibundoy robber frog (P. zoilae) is known only from the Sibundoy Valley in south-western Colombia (Putumayo department). The San Martín robber frog (P. infraguttatus) is only known from two localities in north-western Peru (San Martín department). The Abra de Zamora robber frog (P. percultus) is known only from a single locality in southern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province). The Santa Bárbara robber frog (P. spectabilis) is known only from a single locality in central Peru (Pasco department). The Volcán Galeras robber frog (P. repens) is known only from Galeras Volcano, the Castelví Reserve and the Doña Juana- Cascabel Volcanic Complex National Park in southern Colombia (Nariño department). The Papallacta robber frog (P. ignicolor) is known only from the upper Río Papallacta Valley in northern Ecuador (Napo province). The Yuraccyaco robber frog (P. scitulus) is known only from a single locality in southern Peru (Ayacucho department). The sharpsnout robber frog (P. acutirostris) is known only from a few localities in northern Ecuador (Santander and Boyacá departments). Carrangueros’ robber frog (P. carranguerorum) is known only from a small area of north-central Colombia (Boyacá, Casanare, Cundinamarca, and Meta departments). Deville’s robber frog (P. devillei) is known only from a small area of north-central Ecuador (Napo province). The wine robber frog (P. bacchus) is confined to a small area of north-central Colombia (Santander department). The livid robber frog (P. lividus) is known only from the Papallacta Valley in north-central Ecuador (Napo province). The ornate robber frog (P. ornatus) is known only from a small area of central Peru (Pasco department). The Loja robber frog (P. vidua) is known only from three localities in southern Ecuador (Loja and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). The elegant robber frog (P. elegans) is known only from a few localities in northcentral Colombia (Cundinamarca and Boyacá departments). Werner’s robber frog (P. affinis) is known only from two disjunct localities in central Colombia (Cundinamarca department). The Cocodrillos robber frog (P. incanus) is known only from three localities in northern Ecuador (Napo province). Carlos Sanchez’s robber frog (P. carlossanchezi) is known from two small, disjunct areas of north-central Colombia (Boyacá and Santander departments). The Bogotacito robber frog (P. merostictus) is known from a few localities in north-central Colombia (Boyacá and Santander departments). Simons’ robber frog (P. simonsii) is known from a few localities in north-western Peru (Cajamarca, La Libertad, and Lambayeque departments). The barking robber frog (P. inusitatus) is known only from a few localities in north-central Ecuador (Sucumbíos, Orellana, Napo, and Pastaza provinces). The Sapote robber frog (P. proserpens) is found widely but patchily in south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). Wagter’s robber frog (P. wagteri) is known only from a few localities in northwestern Peru (San Martín and Amazonas departments). Schulte’s robber frog (P. schultei) is known only from a few localities in north-western Peru (San Martín, Cajamarca, and Amazonas departments). The Rio Luisito robber frog (P. lutitus) is known from a few disjunct localities in northcentral Colombia (Santander department). The big-headed robber frog (P. grandiceps) is known from a few disjunct localities in north-central Colombia (Santander and Boyacá departments). The gladiator robber frog (P. gladiator) is known from a few scattered localities in south-western Colombia (Putumayo department) and northern Ecuador (Napo, Pichincha, Morona Santiago, and Imbabura provinces). The moss robber frog (P. eriphus) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Putumayo department) and northern Ecuador (Sucumbíos, Napo, Tungurahua, and Pastaza provinces). Peck’s robber frog (P. pecki) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). The Cuenca robber frog (P. baryecuus) is known from a few localities in south-central Ecuador (Morona Santiago province). Uisa’s robber frog (P. uisae) is found widely but patchily in northcentral Colombia. The mossy robber frog (P. muscosus) is found widely but patchily in south-eastern Ecuador and north-eastern Peru. The horned robber frog (P. corniger) is found in south-western Colombia (Caquetá and Huila departments). The Boyacá robber frog (P. mnionaetes) is known only from a few localities within a small area of north-western Colombia (Boyacá department). The thickskin robber frog (P. pycnodermis) is known from a few localities in southcentral Ecuador (Morona Santiago province). The greaved robber frog (P. ocreatus) is known from two disjunct localities in north-central Ecuador (Carchi province), but may also occur in south-western Colombia. The Cundinamarca robber frog (P. renjiforum) is confined to a small area of west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca department). The noble robber frog (P. albertus) is known from a few small, isolated localities in central Peru (Pasco and Junín departments). The whitefooted robber frog (P. leucopus) is known from two disjunct localities in south-western Colombia (Nariño department) and north-central Ecuador (Sucombíos and Napo provinces). The blackened robber frog (P. atratus) is known from a few localities in south-central and south-eastern Ecuador. The glandulous robber frog (P. glandulosus) is known from two disjunct areas in north-central Ecuador (Napo and Sucumbíos provinces). The black-bellied robber frog (P. melanogaster) is known from a small area of north-western Peru (Amazonas department). The Orestes robber frog (P. orestes) is confined to a few localites within a small area of south-central Ecuador (Loja, Morona Santiago, and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). The red robber frog (P. rubicundus) is found widely but patchily in north-central Ecuador. The red-eyed robber frog (P. rufioculis) is found widely but patchily in north-western Peru and adjacent south-eastern Ecuador. The Pataikos robber frog (P. pataikos) is known for certain only from a small area of north-western Peru (Amazonas department). The serendipitous robber frog (P. serendipitus) is found in southeastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe and Morona Santiago provinces) and adjacent areas of north-western Peru. The Susaguá robber frog (P. susaguae) is confined to a small area of north-western Colombia (Cundinamarca department). The Huasahuasi robber frog (P. pardalinus) is confined to a single locality in central Peru (Junín department). The festive robber frog (P. festae) is confined to a small area of north-central Ecuador (Sucumbíos and Napos provinces). The black and grey robber frog (P. nigrogriseus) and the elongated robber frog (P. prolatus) are both found patchily throughout much of central Ecuador. Mueses-Cisneros’ robber frog (P. colonensis) is known from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Putumayo and Nariño departments) and north-central Ecuador (Sucumbíos and Napo provinces).

Jiménez de la Espada’s robber frog (Strabomantis cornutus) is found widely but patchily in south-western Colombia and central Ecuador. Inger’s robber frog (S. ingeri) is known from a few isolated localities in north-central Colombia (Cundinamarca, Santander, and Norte de Santander departments). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Peruvian egg frog (Ctenophryne carpish) is known only from two widely separated localities in west-central Peru (Huánuco and San Martín departments).

The Cillapata Noble frog (Noblella duellmani) is known only from a single specimen collected from south-central Peru (Pasco department). The Inca Mine Noble frog (N. peruviana) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Peru (Puno department). The San Matéo Noble frog (N. ritarasquinae) is known only from the San Matéo River Valley within Carrasco National Park, in central Bolivia (Cochabamba department). Lynch’s Noble frog (N. lynchi) is known only from three isolated localities in north-western Peru (Amazonas department).

Several species of semi-aquatic water frog (Telmatobius) from the Cordillera Oriental are seriously threatened due to fungal diseases, habitat destruction, climate change, and overcollection for food. The La Sibiria water frog (T. sibiricus) is known only from a small area of central Bolivia (Cochabamba and Santa Cruz departments), where it was last recorded in 2003. It may be extinct. The Sehuencas water frog (T. yuracare) was historically found in western Bolivia (Cochabamba and Santa Crux departments), where it was last recorded in the wild in 2008. From then on only a single captive individual was thought to survive and it was feared that he might be the last of his kind. However, in 2019 an expedition discovered five more individuals, and a captive-breeding programme has been undertaken with the hope of future reintroductions. Sanborn’s water frog (T. sanborni) was historically found within a small area of south-eastern Peru (Cusco and Puno departments), where it may now be extirpated, and northwestern Bolivia (La Paz). Wiens’ water frog (T. necopinus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Amazonas department). The Inquisivi water frog (T. espadai) is known only from two localities in west-central Bolivia (Le Paz and Cochambamba departments). The Tojologue water frog (T. timens) is known from a few small, widely scattered localities in south-eastern Peru (Cusco department) and western Bolivia (La Paz department). The shortsnout water frog (T. brevirostris) is confined to a small area of western Peru (Huánuco department). De la Riva’s water frog (T. edaphonastes) is known only from a small area of central Bolivia (Cochabamba and Santa Cruz departments). The Huánuco water frog (T. punctatus) is known only from three localities within a small area of central Peru (Huánuco department). Huahachuco water frog (T. brevipes) is confined to a small area of north-western Peru (Cajamarca, La Libertad, and Ancash departments). Trueb’s water frog (T. truebae) is known from a few localities within a small area of northwestern Peru (Cajamarca, Amazonas, and San Martín departments). Vellard’s water frog (T. vellardi) is known only from a few localities in southern Ecuador (Loja and Zamora Chinchipe provinces). Carrilla’s water frog (T. carrillae) is known from a few localities in west-central Peru (Ancash, Huánuco, and Lima departments).

The orphan climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa capitana) is known only from its original collection in the early 1960s from west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca department). The Pandi climbing salamander (B. pandi) is known only from three localities in west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca department). The Rio Santa Rosa climbing salamander (B. digitigrada) is known only from a single locality in southern Peru (Ayacucho department). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Marcapata Valley caecilian (Epicrionops peruvianus) is known only from the Marcapata Valley in south-eastern Peru (Cusco department).

The Fundo Sinchona caecilian (Caecilia inca) is known only from a single specimen collected from an imprecise locality in central Peru (Loreto department) in 1944. The Normandia caecilian (C. crassisquama) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1968 from south-central Ecuador (Morona Santiago province), within what is now Sangay National Park.

The Perijá Range

The Perijá Range (Sierra de Perijá in Spanish) represents one of the two terminal bifurcations of the Cordillera Oriental (the other being the Mérida Cordillera, here treated separately). It is located in northern Colombia (Norte de Santander and Cesar departments) and western Venezuela (Zulia state).

The Perijá helmeted curassow (Pauxi pauxi gilliardi) is confined to the Perijá Range, where it is declining due to loss of habitat and hunting.

The Perijá black-fronted wood quail (Odontophorus atrifrons naval) is confined to a small area of the Perijá Range.

The Perijá thistletail (Asthenes perijana) is a type of passerine bird known only from a few localities within the Perijá Range.

The Perijá brush-finch (Arremon perijanus) is found patchily within the Perijá Range.

The Perijá antpitta (Grallaria saltuensis) is found patchily within the Perijá Range.

The Perijá tapaculo (Scytalopus perijanus) is known only from a few scattered localities within the Perijá Range.

The Perijá starfrontlet (Coeligena consita) is a type of hummingbird known only from the Perijá Range.

The Perijá metaltail (Metallura iracunda) is a type of hummingbird known only from a few localities within the Perijá Range, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Perijá lichen gecko (Gonatodes lichenosus) is confined to the Manastara Valley on the eastern versant of the Perijá Range.

The Perijá ground snake (Atractus acheronius) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1950.

The Mesa Turik robber frog (Pristimantis turik) is known only from a single specimen collected in western Venezuela (Zulia state). The Casa de Cristal robber frog (P. reclusas) is known only from a a single locality in northern Colombia (Cesar department). Cuentas’ robber frog (P. cuentasi) is known only from a few localities in northern Colombia (Cesar department). The striped robber frog (P. fasciatus) is known only from a few specimens collected throughout the Perija Range. Rivas’ robber frog (P. rivasi) is known only from a few localities within the Perijá Range. All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Tamá Massif (Macizo del Tamá in Spanish) is in fact a group of mountains located on the border between northcentral Colombia (Norte de Santander department) and western Venezuela (Apure and Táchira states). It is jointly protected by Tamá National Natural Park (Colombia) and El Tamá National Park (Venezuela).

The Táchira antpitta (Grallaria chthonia) was long known only from four specimens collected from a single locality in north-western Venezuela (Tachira state) in 1955–56. The area has since been deforested and the species was thought to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 2016 within El Tamá National Park.

The Tamá ground snake (Atractus tamaensis) is known only from its original collection in 1980 from western Venezuela (Táchira state).

The Tamá stubfoot toad (Atelopus tamaense) is confined to the high-elevation páramo sphagnum bogs and montane forests of the Tamá Massif.

Helena’s marsupial frog (Gastrotheca helenae) is known only from a few localities on the Tamá Massif.

The Macarena Range

The Macarena Range (Serranía de la Macarena in Spanish) is an isolated mountain range located in south-central Colombia (Meta department). It runs north to south for some 120 km and is 30 km wide.

The Macarena snail-eater (Dipsas baliomelas) is a type of snake known only from cloud forests in the Macarena Range.

Sumaco Volcano

Sumaco Volcano (Volcán Sumaco in Spanish) is an isolated, dormant stratovolcano in north-central Ecuador (Napo province). It is isolated from the Cordillera Oriental by the lowland valley of the Cosanga and Quijos rivers. While protected within Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, the local fauna is threatened by the potential for volcanic eruptions.

The Sumaco plump toad (Osornophryne sumacoensis) is confined to the vicinity of a small crater lake on the eastern slopes of Sumaco Volcano.

The Sumaco robber frog (Pristimantis ernesti) is confined to montane grassland at the summit of Sumaco Volcano.

The Cutucú Range

The Cutucú Range (Serranía del Cutucú in Spanish) is located in south-central Ecuador (Morona Santiago province).

The Cutucú stubfoot toad (Atelopus halihelos) is known only from a few localities within the Cutucú Range. Last recorded in 1988 despite extensive surveys, it is most likely extinct.

The Cóndor Range

The Cóndor Range (Serranía del Cóndor in Spanish) is located on the border between south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe provinces) and north-western Peru (Amazonas department).

The Cóndor shrew opposum (Caenolestes condorensis) is known only from three specimens collected from southeastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago province).

The Cóndor giant glass frog (Centrolene condor) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province).

The Cóndor rocket frog (Hyloxalus mystax) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Ecuador (Morona Santiago province).

The Cóndor robber frog (Pristimantis exoristus) is known only from three localities within the Cóndor Range.

Simmons’ big-headed frog (Lynchius simmonsi) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Ecuador.

The Colán Range

The Colán Range (Serrania Colán in Spanish) is a semiisolated mountain range within the Huancabamba Depression of north-western Peru (Amazonas department).

The long-whiskered owlet (Xenoglaux loweryi) is known only from a few specimens collected from isolated ridges within the Colán Range.

The Colán marsupial frog (Gastrotheca abdita) is known only from a single locality within the Colán Range.

The Colán rocket frog (Hyloxalus spilotogaster) is known only from a single locality within the Colán Range.

The wedge-snouted robber frog (Pristimantis cuneirostris) and black-trousered robber frog (P. atrabracus) are both known only from the Colán Range, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.

The Colán water frog (Telmatobius colanensis) is a semiaquatic species known only from a single locality within the Colán Range.

The Escalera Range

The Escalera Range (Serranía Escalera in Spanish) is located in north-western Peru (San Martín department).

The Tarapoto Cochran frog (Rulyrana saxiscandens) is known only from the Escalera Range.

The Azul Range

The Azul Range (Serranía Azul in Spanish) is located in northcentral Peru (San Martín, Loreto, Pasco, Huánuco, Junín, and Ucayali departments).

The scarlet-banded barbet (Capito wallacei) is confined to a small area of forest growing on a ridgetop known as Peak 1538 in Cordillera Azul National Park, south-western Loreto department. The total population is thought to be less than 1000.

The reticulated stubfoot toad (Atelopus reticulatus) is known only from a single locality within the Azul Range. The dimorphous stubfoot toad (A. dimorphus) is confined to a small area of Huánuco department.

The Azul marsupial frog (Gastrotheca stictopleura) is known only from a few localities in Pasco, Huánuco, and Junín departments.

The Azul giant glass frog (Centrolene azulae) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1966 from an isolated cloud forest in Huánuco department.

Silverstone’s poison dart frog (Ameerega silverstonei) is known only from two localities in the Azul Range. The Huánuco robber frog (Pristimantis caliginosus) is known only from a single locality in Huánuco department.

The Sira Range

The Sira Range (Serrania del Sira in Spanish) is a semi-isolated mountain range located in central Peru (Ucayali, Huánuco, and Pasco departments).

The Sira curassow (Pauxi koepckeae) is endemic to the Sira Range, where it has only rarely been recorded since its discovery in 1969.

The Sira stubfoot toad (Atelopus siranus) is known only from a few specimens collected on the eastern slopes of the Sira Range. It has not been reported since 1988.

The Laguna beaked toad (Rhinella nesiotes) is known only from the western slopes of the Sira Range.

The purple-sided leaf frog (Callimedusa baltea) is known only from two localities within the Sira Range.

The Sira rocket frog (Hyloxalus patitae) is confined to the Sira Range.

The Carpish Range

The Carpish Range (Serranía de Carpish in Spanish) is located in central Peru (Huánuco department).

The Carpish glass frog (Nymphargus mixomaculatus) is known only from a single locality within the Carpish Range.

The Carpish marsupial frog (Gastrotheca zeugocystis) is known only from a single locality within the Carpish Range.

The Yanachaga-Chemillén Range

The Yanachaga-Chemillén Range (Sierra Yanachaga in Spanish) is located in south-central Peru (Pasco department). It contains one of the last remaining large forested areas in the region, some of which is protected within Yanachaga- Chemillén National Park.

The Yanachaga beaked toad (Rhinella yanachaga) is known only from the vicinity of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park. The San Alberto marsupial frog (Gastrotheca carinaceps) is known only from Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park.

Miroslawa’s Andes frog (Phrynopus miroslawae), Brack’s Andes frog (P. bracki), Abra Esperanza Andes frog (P. auriculatus), Paucar’s Andes frog (P. paucari), Pesantes’ Andes frog (P. pesantesi), Paucartambo Andes frog (P. bufoides), and the Huancabamba Andes frog (P. tribulosus) are all confined to small areas of the Yanachaga-Chemillén Range.

The Oxapampa poison dart frog (Ameerega planipaleae) is confined to a small area of Yanachaga-Chemillén Range.

Lucas’ robber frog (Pristimantis lucasi) along with at least three other little-known and ill-defined species (P. stictogaster, P. rhabdocnemus, and P. aniptopalmatus) are all confined to small areas of the Yanachaga-Chemillén Range.

The Yanachaga egg frog (Ctenophryne barbatula) is known only from Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park.

The Vilcabamba Range

The Vilcabamba Range (Sierra de Vilcabamba in Spanish) is located in south-central Peru (Cusco and Junín departments).

The Asháninka arboreal chinchilla rat (Cuscomys ashaninka) is known only from a single specimen collected in the late 1990s from the Vilcabamba Range.

The Ashaninka Oldfield mouse (Thomasomys onkiro) is known only from a single locality in Junín department.

Three robber frogs of the genus Pristimantis (P. vilcabambae, P. tanyrhynchus, and P. seorsus) are known only from a single locality in Junín department.

The Vilcanota Range

The Vilcanota Range (Sierra de Vilcanota in Spanish) is located in south-central Peru (Cusco and Puno departments). The Paucartambo Range (Serranía Paucartambo in Spanish) is located in south-central Peru (Cusco department).

The Cusco Andes frog (Bryophryne cophites) is known only from the wet puna grasslands and elfin forests of the northern and southern slopes of Abra Acjanaco, in the southern part of Manu National Park.

The Carabaya Range

The Carabaya Range (Sierra Carabaya in Spanish) is located in south-eastern Peru (Puno department).

Koford’s puna mouse (Punomys kofordi) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Kallawaya Mountains of the Carabaya Range.

The vertebral ground snake (Atractus vertebralis) is known only from a single locality in the Carabaya Range.

The Carabaya stubfoot toad (Atelopus erythropus) is known only from cloud forest fragments within the Carabaya Range.

The Apolobamba Range

The Apolobamba Range (Sierra Apolombama in Spanish) is located in central-west Bolivia (La Paz department).

The Apolobamba toad (Nannophryne apolobambica) is known only from a single locality in the Apolobamba Range.

The Charazani Andes frog (Microkayla saltator), Larecaja Andes frog (M. illampu), Choquetanga Chico Andes frog (M. pinguis), Inquisivi Andes frog (M. quimsacruzis), Ian’s Andes frog (M. iani), Caalaya Andes frog (M. kallawaya), Illiman’s Andes frog (M. illimani), Wettstein’s Andes frog (M. wettsteini), Guille’s Andes frog (M. guillei), Ankohuma Andes frog (M. ankohuma), Amaguaya Andes frog (M. condoriri), and the Sanja Pampa Andes frog (M. chacaltaya) are all known only from small areas of Apolobamba Cordillera.

The Cochabamba Range

The Cochabamba Range (Serranía Cochabamba in Spanish) is located in west-central Bolivia (Cochabamba department).

The Parjacti tree frog (Hyloscirtus chlorosteus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1992 from the Cochabamba Range. Not recorded since despite extensive surveys, it may be extinct.

The Mérida Cordillera

The Mérida Cordillera (Cordillera de Mérida in Spanish) is located in north-western Venezuela (Táchira, Mérida, Barinas, Trujillo, Portuguesa, Falcón, and Lara states).

The eastern mountain coati (Nasuella meridensis) is a small omnivorous mammal known only from a few localities within the Mérida Cordillera.

Musso’s fish-eating rat (Neusticomys mussoi) is a semiaquatic species known only from two localities in Táchira state.

Reig’s montane mouse (Aepeomys reigi) is known only from Lara and Trujillo states.

Theresa’s rusty-faced parrot (Hapalopsittaca amazonina theresae) is confined to the Mérida Cordillera in north-western Venezuela (Trujillo, Mérida, and Táchira states), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The slaty-backed mountain finch (Poospiza goeringi) is confined to high-elevation areas of the Mérida Cordillera.

The Venezuelan lightbulb lizard (Proctoporus cephalolineatus) is confined to the foothills of the Mérida Cordillera, where it is threatened by the expansion of coffee plantations.

The Mérida blind snake (Rena affinis) is known only from two specimens collected in the late nineteenth century from Mérida and Táchira states.

The Páramo de Mucubají stubfoot toad (Atelopus mucubajiensis), Soriano’s stubfoot toad (A. sorianoi), and the rednose stubfoot toad (A. oxyrhynchus) are each known only from as small area of Mérida state, where they all underwent drastic declines during the 1990s most likely due to chytridiomycosis, and may be extinct. The Piñango stubfoot toad (A. pinangoi) was similarly confined to a small area of Mérida state, where it was last recorded in 2008. It too may be extinct. The red and yellow stubfoot toad (A. chrysocorallus) is known only from a single locality in Trujillo state, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat and pollution.

Esteves’ tree frog (Hyloscirtus estevesi) is known only from an undefined locality within the Mérida Cordillera.

The Mérida yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus meridensis) is a rare species known only from the cloud forests of Mérida state.

The Barbacoas poison dart frog (Mannophryne larandina) is known only from a small area of Lara state. Yústiz’s poison dart frog (M. yustizi) is known from the regions of Yacambú and Terepaima national parks in Lara state. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and agrochemical pollution.

The Bocono cryptic forest frog (Allobates humilis) is confined to a few localities in western Venezuela (Trujillo and Barinas states).

Several species of malodorous, nocturnal skunk frog (Aromobates) endemic to the Mérida Cordillera are seriously threatened by loss of habitat, introduced species and, possibly, chytridiomycosis. The whitebelly skunk frog (A. alboguttatus) is known only from a small area of Mérida state. The species underwent a drastic decline during the 1990s and may be extinct. The El Vivero skunk frog (A. haydeeae) is known only from a single locality in Táchira state, where it may be extinct. The nocturnal skunk frog (A. nocturnus) is known only from a single locality in Trujillo state. Not seen since its original description in the early 1990s, it may be extinct. The El Morro skunk frog (A. serranus) is known only from a single cloud forest in Mérida state, where it may be extinct. The leopard skunk frog (A. leopardalis) is known only from a single locality in Mérida state. Not seen since the early 1990s, it may be extinct. The Boca del Monte skunk frog (A. orostoma) is known only from a single locality in Táchira state. The Chorotal skunk frog (A. meridensis), Mayorga skunk frog (A. mayorgai), and the Las Playitas skunk frog (A. molinarii) are each known only from a few localities in Mérida state. The salty skunk frog (A. saltuensis) is known only from a small area of Táchira state.

A great many robber frogs of the genus Pristimantis endemic to the Mérida Cordillera are threatened by loss of habitat. The El Jabón robber frog (P. jabonensis) is confined to the Páramo El Jabón in Trujillo state. The El Batallón robber frog (P. thyellus) is confined to the Páramo El Batallón in Táchira state. The Monte Zerpa robber frog (P. culatensis) is known only from two localites in Mérida state. The highpáramo robber frog (P. paramerus) is confined to a few localities in Mérida state. Lancini’s robber frog (P. lancinii) is confined to a few localities in Trujillo state. The Rangel robber frog (P. ginesi) is confined to a small area of Mérida and Trujillo states. Yustiz’s robber frog (P. yustizi) and La Marca’s robber frog (P. pedimontanus) are both known only from a small number of localities throughout much of the Mérida Cordillera.

The Guaramacal Massif

The Guaramacal Massif is located in Trujillo state.

The Guaramacal robber frog (Pristimantis rhigophilus) and the Boconó robber frog (P. boconoensis) are both confined to the Páramo de Guaramacal.

The Guaramacal climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa guaramacalensis) is known only from the Guaramacal Massif.

The Sierra Nevada de Mérida

The Sierra Nevada de Mérida is located in Mérida and Barinas states. It includes the highest peaks in Venezuela, among them Pico Bolívar, Pico Humboldt, Pico Bonpland, and others. The area is protected within Sierra Nevada National Park.

The greedy Olalla rat (Olallamys edax) is known only from a single high-altitude locality in Barinas state.

García-Pérez’s ameiva (Ameiva provitaae) is a type of lizard confined to the Bolsón Arido de Lagunillas in western Barinas state.

Mijares’ ground snake (Atractus mijaresi) is known only from a single locality in Mérida state.

The La Carbonera stubfoot toad (Atelopus carbonerensis) is confined to a small area of Mérida state.

The Monte Zerpa giant glass frog (Centrolene altitudinalis) is known only from a small area of Mérida state.

Durant’s glass frog (Hyalinobatrachium duranti) is confined to a small area of Mérida state.

The Sierra Nevada de Mérida skunk frog (Aromobates capurinensis) is known only from a single locality in Mérida state.

The Teleférico robber frog (Pristimantis telefericus) and the Los Aranguren robber frog (P. flabellidiscus) are each known only from a single locality in Mérida state.

The La Mucuy climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa mucuyensis) is confined to a single locality within Sierra Nevada National Park.

The Culata Range

The Culata Range (Sierra de la Culata in Spanish) is located in western Venezuela (Mérida and Trujillo states).

Durant’s skunk frog (Aromobates duranti) is confined to the Páramo de La Culata in Mérida state.

The Los Conejos robber frog (Pristimantis colostichos) is confined to the Páramo de Los Conejos in Mérida state. Bricen’s robber frog (P. briceni) and the many-striped robber frog (P. pleurostriatus) are both known only from a few localities within the Culata Range.

The Culata climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa orestes) is confined to cloud forests within the Culata Range.

The Portuguesa Range

The Portuguesa Range (Sierra de Portuguesa) is located in north-western Venezuela (Lara and Portuguesa states).

The Portuguesa lightbulb lizard (Riama inanis) is known only from a single locality within the Portuguesa Range.

Speer’s poison dart frog (Mannophryne speeri) is known only from a single locality within the Portuguesa Range.

The Venezuelan Coastal Ranges

The Venezuelan Coastal Ranges (Cordillera de la Costa in Spanish) is a north-eastern extension of the Andes that runs along the northern coast of Venezuela. It consists of two main parallel mountain ranges, the Serranía del Litoral and the Serannía del Interior, along with lower mountains further west and to the east on the Paria Peninsula.

The Venezuelan flowerpiercer (Diglossa venezuelensis) is a type of tanager known only from a few scattered localities within the Venezuelan Coastal Ranges, specifically the Turimiquire and Caripe ranges in Sucre, Anzoátegui and Monagas states and the Paria Range (Sucre state). Collections from the 1920s and 1930s suggest that it was once fairly common, but there have been relatively few records since. It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Sucre antpitta (Grallaricula cumanensis) is divided into two subspecies found disjunctly within the Venezuelan Coastal Ranges. The nominate form (G. c. cumanensis) occurs in the Turimiquire and Caripe ranges in Sucre, Anzoátegui, and Monagas states), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

Phelp’s great antpitta (Grallaria excelsa phelpsi) is known only from its original collection during the early twentieth century from Arauga state.

Urich’s tyrannulet (Phyllomyias urichi) is a very rare species that until recently had only been seen on three occasions throughout the Venezuelan Coastal Ranges (in 1899, during the 1940s and again in 2005), and was feared to be extinct. In 2021, however, an expedition to try and rediscover the species was undertaken. The locality of the 2005 sighting had since been deforested, and several other potential areas of habitat had also been severely degraded. Eventually, however, two pairs were photographed and sound recorded.

The Paria brush-finch (Arremon phygas) is confined to a few localities in north-eastern Venezuela (Anzoátegui, Sucre, and Monagas states).

Battersby’s yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus battersbyi) is known only from two specimens collected in 1800 from what is now the city of Caracas, in northern Venezuela. All habitat has since disappeared, and the species is almost certainly extinct.

The El Tovar glass frog (Celsiella revocata) is found patchily within the Venezuelan Coastal Ranges.

The El Ávila glass frog (Hyalinobatrachium guairarepanense) is confined to the central part of the Venezuelan Coastal Range, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The giant marsupial frog (Gastrotheca ovifera) is confined to cloud forests within the Venezuelan Coastal Ranges, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Litoral Range

The Litoral Range (Serranía del Litoral in Spanish) is located in northern Venezuela (Aragua, Yaracuy, Carabobo, Vargas, and Miranda states, as well as Distrito Capital).

Williams’ false coral snake (Erythrolamprus williamsi) is confined to the Litoral Range.

Two species of stubfoot toad (Atelopus) endemic to the Litoral Range are seriously threatened by habitat destruction and chytridiomycocis. Vogel’s stubfoot toad (A. vogli) is known only from two localities within the Litoral Range. Its habitat was largely destroyed during the mid-twentieth century and the species was thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 2009. The Veragua stubfoot toad (A. cruciger) was historically found throughout the Litoral Range but underwent a serious decline in the late twentieth century. Last recorded in 1986, it was thought to be extinct until a small population was rediscovered in 2003.

The Rancho Grande leaf frog (Agalychnis medinae) is known only from a few localities in Aragua, Carabobo, and Yaracuy states.

The Paso Portachuelo poison dart frog (Mannophryne neblina) is known only from a single locality within Henri Pittier National Park (Aragua state). It is seriously threatened by chytridiomycosis.

Test’s cryptic forest frog (Allobates bromelicola) is known only from a small area in Aragua state, where it is seriously threatened by chytridiomycosis.

Dunn’s cryptic forest frog (Prostherapis dunni) is known only from the western part of the Litoral Range. Formerly common, it has not been observed in the wild since the early twenty-first century and is possibly extinct.

The reticulated robber frog (Pristimantis reticulatus) and the stenograph robber frog (P. stenodiscus) are both known only from Pico Periquito, within Henri Pittier National Park in Aragua state. The former species has not been recorded since 1955 and may be extinct. The Rancho Grande robber frog (P. anotis) and Roze’s robber frog (P. rozei) are each known only from a single locality in Aragua state. Rivero’s robber frog (P. riveroi) is known only from two disjunct localities in Aragua and Yaracuy states.

The Puerto Cabello robber frog (Strabomantis biporcatus) is known only from three localities within the Litoral Range.

The Interior Range

The Interior Range (Serranía del Interior in Spanish) is located in northern Venezuela (Guárico, Aragua, and Miranda states).

The Interior Range poison dart frog (Mannophryne oblitterata) is confined to a small area of the Interior Range.

The Turimiquire Massif

The Turimiquire Massif (Macizo de Turimiquire in Spanish) is located in north-eastern Venezuela (Sucre, Anzoátegui and Monagas states). It is comprised of the Turimiquire and Caripe ranges.

The grey-headed warbler (Basileuterus griseiceps) is known only from a few localities within the Turimiquire and Caripe ranges, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The white-throated barbtail (Premnoplex tatei) is a type of passerine bird known only from Cerro Peonía, Cerro Turimiquire, Cerro Macanillal, and Cerro Negro. There have been few recent records.

The Venezuelan sylph (Aglaiocercus berlepschi) is a type of hummingbird confined to the Turimiquire Range.

Seiglie’s gecko (Gonatodes seigliei) is known only from two localities in Monagas state.

The Turimiquire cryptic forest frog (Allobates mandelorum) is known only from two localities on the southern slopes of the Turimiquire Massif.

The La Trinidad robber frog (Pristimantis turumiquirensis) is known for certain only from three specimens collected in 1925 from a single high-elevation cave on the Turimiquire Massif.

The Paria Range

The Paria Range (Serranía de Paria in Spanish) is located on the Paria Peninsula of north-eastern coastal Venezuela (Sucre state). It is nominally protected within Peninsula de Paria National Park.

The Paria barbtail (Premnoplex pariae) is a type of passerine bird known only from Cerro El Humo, Cerro El Olvido, and Cerro Azul. There have been few recent records.

The Paria whitestart (Myioborus pariae) is a type of warbler confined to the Paria Range.

The Paria antpitta (Grallaricula cumanensis pariae) is found patchily within the Paria Range.

The Paria anadia (Anadia pariaensis) is a type of lizard confined to the Paria Range.

The cloud forest snake (Taeniophallus nebularis) is known only from a single locality within the Paria Range. Cerro El Humo is one of the highest peaks in the Paria Range.

Vozmediano’s glass frog (Celsiella vozmedianoi) is confined to Cerro El Humo.

The Paria cryptic forest frog (Allobates caribe) is known only from the southern slope of Cerro El Humo.

The Parupano Range

The Parupano Range (Serranía de Parupano in Spanish) is located in north-western Venezuela (Lara state).

The Ayeush ground snake (Atractus ayeush) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Parupano Range.

The Churuguara Range

The Churuguara Range (Sierra de Churuguara in Spanish) is located in north-western Venezuela (Falcón state).

Rivero’s poison dart frog (Mannophryne caquetio) is known only from two localities within the Churuguara Range.

The Ziruma Range

The Ziruma Range (Serranía de Ziruma in Spanish) is located in north-western Venezuela (Falcón state).

The Socopó yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus amicorum) is known only from a single specimen collected from Cerro Socopó in Falcón state.

The Socopó ditch frog (Leptodactylus magistris) is known only from the few remaining forest patches on Cerro Socopó in the Ziruma Range.

The San Luis Range

The San Luis Range (Sierra de San Luis in Spanish) is an isolated mountain chain located in north-western Venezuela (Falcón state).

The San Luis beaked toad (Rhinella sclerocephala) is confined to the San Luis Range, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for use in ‘traditional medicine’.

Neild’s leaf frog (Phyllomedusa neildi) appears to be confined to the San Luis Range.

The Aroa Range

The Aroa Range (Sierra de Aroa in Spanish) is located in north-western Venezuela (Yaracuy state).

The Aroa yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus yaracuyanus) is known only from a single locality within the Aroa Range.

The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is an isolated mountain range related to but separated from the Andes. Located on the coast of northern Colombia (Magdalena, Cesar, and La Guajira departments), it provides a wide range of habitats from xeric scrub to tropical rainforest and páramo grassland. Habitat destruction, unfortunately, has been extensive and is ongoing.

The red-crested tree rat (Santamartamys rufodorsalis) was long known only from specimens collected in 1898 and 1913 from undefined localities within the Sierra Madre de Santa Marta. In 2011 a third individual was photographed within the El Dorado ProAves Reserve.

The Minca spiny rat (Proechimys mincae) is confined to a small area of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The unicoloured Oldfield mouse (Thomasomys monochromos) is confined to a few areas of montane forest and páramo in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Santa Marta parakeet (Pyrrhura viridicata) is a rare species known only from a few areas of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Santa Marta black-fronted wood quail (Odontophorus atrifrons atrifrons) is confined to the northern part of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The rusty-headed spinetail (Synallaxis fuscorufa) is confined to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Santa Marta antpitta (Grallaria bangsi) is confined to montane forests of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Carriker’s mountain tanager (Dubusia carrikeri) is confined to montane forest of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Santa Marta bush-tyrant (Myiotheretes pernix) is confined to a few localities along the northern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Santa Marta wren (Troglodytes monticola) is known only from remote areas in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Santa Marta warbler (Myiothlypis basilica) is found patchily in the montane forests of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The blue-bearded helmetcrest (Oxypogon cyanolaemus) is a type of hummingbird that was last seen in 1946, but rediscovered in 2015 in a small area of fire-damaged páramo.

The Santa Marta sabrewing (Campylopterus phainopeplus) is a type of hummingbird confined to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The black-headed thornbill (Ramphomicron dorsale) is a type of hummingbird known only from three localities in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, two of which are only historical.

The Santa Marta blossom-crown (Anthocephala floriceps) is a type of hummingbird confined to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Magdalena clawed gecko (Pseudogonatodes furvus) is known only from a single locality in Magdalena department, where it was last recorded in 1980.

The Santa Marta anole (Anolis santamartae) is known only from two localities in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Romaleo’s largescale lizard (Alopoglossus romaleos) is known only from a small area of Magdalena department.

Ruthven’s anadia (Anadia pulchella) is a type of lizard confined to the western slopes of the Sierra Madre de Santa Marta.

The Guajira stubfoot toad (Atelopus carrikeri), Walker’s stubfoot toad (A. walkeri), starry stubfoot toad (A. arsyecue), Nahuma stubfoot toad (A. nahumae), and the happy stubfoot toad (A. laetissimus) are all confined to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, where they are threatened by loss of habitat and possibly chytridiomycosis.

The Magdalena giant glass frog (Ikakogi tayrona) is known only from two localities within the Sierra Madre de Santa Marta.

Boulenger’s backpack frog (Cryptobatrachus boulengeri) is confined to the surrounding slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The delicate robber frog (Pristimantis delicatus), Cristina’s robber frog (P. cristinae), Ruthven’s robber frog (P. ruthveni), Carmelita’s robber frog (P. carmelitae), and the ground robber frog (P. insignitus) are all confined to small areas of the Sierra Madre de Santa Marta, where they are threatened by loss of habitat.

Walker’s sierra frog (Geobatrachus walkeri) is confined to the north-western and western slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Savage’s climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa savagei) is known only from a few localities in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Inter-Andean Valleys

Inter-Andean Valleys (also know as ‘valles’) are located in the northern and central Andes of Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. They are characterized by a rain shadow effect from the rugged surrounding mountains, creating notably warm, dry habitats.

The speckle-chested piculet (Picumnus steindachneri) is a type of woodpecker known only from a few localities within the Huallaga and Utcubamba valleys of north-western Peru (San Martín and Amazonas departments).

The Pataz stubfoot toad (Atelopus patazensis) is known only from a single inter-Andean valley in north-western Peru (La Libertad department). The species has undergone a significant decline in recent years due to mining activities and, perhaps, chytridiomycosis.

The southern Ecuador marsupial frog (Gastrotheca litonedis) is known from a few localities in south-central Ecuador (Azuay, Cañar, and Loja provinces). It is threatened by loss of habitat and pesticide pollution.

The Ambato-Riobamba robber frog (Pristimantis modipeplus) is known only from a few localities within the Ambato- Riobamba Valley in central Ecuador (Tungurahua province).

The Sinú River Valley

The Sinú River Valley is located in north-western Colombia.

The Sinú parakeet (Pyrrhura subandina) is known only from the Sinú River Valley in Córdoba department, where it has not been recorded since 1949. It is most likely extinct.

The Sinú brown-throated parakeet (Aratinga pertinax griseipecta) is known only from the Sinú River Valley in Córdoba department, where it has not been recorded since 1949. It is most likely extinct.

The Cauca River Valley

The Cauca River Valley is located between the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). It is notable for its biologically important dry forests.

The arboreal soft-furred spiny rat (Diplomys caniceps) is known only from a small area of the Cauca River Valley in Antioquia department.

The Antioquia wren (Thryophilus sernai) is confined to the northern part of the Cauca River Valley, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The Magdalena River Valley

The Magdalena River Valley is located in central Colombia, between the Cordillera Central and Oriental. It is notable for its biologically important dry forests.

The Magdalena white-mantled barbet (Capito hypoleucus extinctus) is confined to the Magdalena Valley.

The Magdalena blossom-crown (Anthocephala berlepschi) is a type of hummingbird confined to the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central within the Magdalena Valley.

The Loja Basin

The Loja Basin is located in south-central Ecuador (Loja province)

The Loja beaked toad (Rhinella amabilis) is confined to the Loja Basin.

The Marañón River Valley

The Marañón River Valley is located in north-western Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca, La Libertad and Ancash departments) and extreme south-eastern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province), along the eastern base of the Cordillera Oriental. Its rain shadow climate supports an important dry forest habitat which forms a biogeographic connection between the lowland forests of the Pacific coast and the Amazon basin. Most of it has unfortunately already been modified or destroyed by agriculture and logging, and the proposed construction of hydroelectric and irrigation dams are a potentially even greater threat to the many endemic species which live here.

The yellow-faced parrotlet (Forpus xanthops) is confined to a small area within the upper Marañón River Valley, where illegal trapping for the international pet trade continues to take a toll on the small population.

The Marañón antshrike (Thamnophilus shumbae) is confined to the Marañón River Valley.

The great spinetail (Synallaxis hypochondriaca) is a type of ovenbird known only from four localities within the Marañón River Valley of north-western Peru. The Marañón spinetail (S. maranonica) is confined to the Marañón River Valley. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The purple-backed sunbeam (Aglaeactis aliciae) is a type of hummingbird is today known with certainly only from the Marañón River Valley of north-western Peru (La Libertad department), where the total population is thought to be less than 1000.

The Marañón rocket frog (Hyloxalus insulatus) is confined to a few localities within the middle Marañón Valley of northwestern Peru (Amazonas and Cajamarca departments).

The Urabamba River Valley

The Urabamba River Valley is located in south-central Peru (Cusco department).

The Chilca marsupial frog (Gastrotheca ochoai) is known only from the Urabamba River Valley.

The Guiana Highlands

The Guiana Highlands are a ‘Lost World’ region of north-eastern South America covering the southern half of Venezuela and part of the north-east, all of the Guianas (except for the low Atlantic coastal plain), the northern part of Brazil, and a small portion of south-eastern Colombia. The actual terrain is comprised of a mixture of three ascending elements: hilly uplands mostly less than 300m in elevation, low mountains ranging from 600 to 900 m, and tepuis (table-like sandstone plateaus). The latter occur in an east-west belt from Suriname to just east of the Andes, reaching their highest point (around 2770 m) where Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil converge. Large expanses of relatively undisturbed montane forest are still to be found here, harbouring a tremendous diversity of plants and animals.

The Pakaraima Mountains

The Pakaraima Mountains (Sierra Pacaraima in Spanish/Serra Pacaraima in Portuguese) are a mountain chain stretching along the south-western Guyana/eastern Venezuela border, extending marginally into northern Brazil (Roraima). They consist of tepuis – the remains of a single large sandstone plateau that once covered the region and which has since eroded, which tend to be found as isolated entities rather than in connected ranges, making them the host of a unique array of endemic plants and animals. Tepuis range in elevation from 1000 to 3000 m and exhibit surface features and caves typical of karst topography, with their plateaus completely isolated from the surrounding ground forest. Taken together they have a combined surface area roughly equivalent to the island of Trinidad.

Reig’s opossum (Monodelphis reigi) is known only from a single montane forest locality within Canaima National Park in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state).

Tyler’s mouse opossum (Marmosa tyleriana) is known only from three isolated tepuis in Venezuala (Auyán, Marahuaca, and Sarisariñama).

The Pakaraima slender mouse opossum (Marmosops pakaraimae) is known only from three localities in western Guyana and from two others in eastern Venezuela.

The Roraima mouse (Podoxymys roraimae) is known only from the Venezuelan side of Mount Roraima and the Guyanan side of Mount Wei-Assipu, but likely occurs a little more widely.

Quelch’s bush toad (Oreophrynella quelchii) is confined to the transboundary summit of Mount Roraima in Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil and to nearby Mount Wei-Assipu on the Brazil/Guiana border. The pebble bush toad (O. nigra) is confined to Mount Kukenán and Mount Yuruaní in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state). MacConnell’s bush toad (O. macconnelli) is known from a few isolated tepuis in eastern Venezuela, western Guyana, and northern Brazil. All are threatened by habitat destruction and human disturbance.

Warren’s tepui tree frog (Tepuihyla warreni) is confined to a few isolated tepuis in western Guyana, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and human disturbance.

The Pakaraima shield frog (Adelophryne patamona) is known only from Mount Wokomung and Mount Maringma in Guyana, but likely also occurs in adjacent areas of northern Brazil (Roraima).

The golden-bellied robber frog (Pristimantis aureoventris) is known only from a few isolated tepuis on the western Guyana–eastern Venezuela border.

Beebe’s cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus beebei) is known only from three localities in western Guyana (the Kaieteur Plateau, Mount Ayanganna, and Mount Wokomung). Praderio’s cryptic forest frog (A. praderioi) and La Marca’s cryptic forest frog (A. roraima) are both known only from a few isolated tepuis in eastern Venezuela and western Guyana.

The Roraima carrying frog (Stefania roraimae) is known from Mount Roraima, Mount Ayanganna, and Mount Wokomung. Goin’s carrying frog (S. goini) is known from Mount Duida and the slopes and summit of Mount Huachamacari in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state).

Cerro Sipapo

Cerro Sipapo is located in central Venezuela (Amazonas state).

The Sipapo cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus wothuja) is known only from the foothills of Cerro Sipapo, but may occur more widely.

Mount Yaví

Mount Yaví is located in central Venezuela (Amazonas state).

The frosted robber frog (Pristimantis pruinatus) is known only from Mount Yaví.

Cerro Yutajé

Cerro Yutajé is located in central Venezuela (Amazonas state).

The Yutajé cryptic forest frog (Allobates undulatus) is known only from Cerro Yutajé.

Cerro Autana

Cerro Autana is an isolated tepui located in south-central Venezuela (Amazonas state).

Brewer’s carrying frog (Stefania breweri) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Autana.

The Jaua-Sarisariñama Massif

The Jaua-Sarisariñama Massif is a group of three sandstone tepuis located in south-central Venezuela (Bolívar state). It is protected within Jaua-Sarisariñama National Park.

The Jaua gladiator tree frog (Boana rhythmica) is known only from Cerro Jaua, but may occur more widely.

The Jaua cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus ayarzaguenai) is known only from Cerro Jaua.

The big-eyed carrying frog (Stefania oculosa) and the Jaua carrying frog (S. percristata) are both known only from Cerro Jaua, but may occur more widely. The Sarisariñama carrying frog (S. riae) is known only from Cerro Sarisariñama.

Mount Wei-Assipu

Mount Wei-Assipu is located on the Brazil–Guyana border.

The Wei-Assipu bush toad (Oreophrynella weiassipuensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from the bottom of a large chasm on Mount Wei-Assipu in 2000.

Mount Ayanganna

Mount Ayanganna is a sandstone tepui located in western Guyana about 85 km east of Mount Roraima.

The Ayanganna bush toad (Oreophrynella dendronastes) is known only from the north-eastern plateau of Mount Ayanganna.

The Ilú-Tramen Massif

The Ilú-Tramen Massif is located in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state). It consists of two separate tepuis (Mount Ilú and Mount Tramen) connected by a common base.

Vasquez’s bush toad (Oreophrynella vasquezi) is known only from the summit of Mount Ilú.

Mount Yuruaní

Mount Yuruaní is located in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state) and (marginally) in adjacent south-western Guyana.

Rivero’s carrying frog (Stefania riveroi) is known only from the summit of Mount Yuruaní.

Cerro Yapacana

Cerro Yapacana is a small, isolated tepui located in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state).

Steyermark’s poison dart frog (Minyobates steyermarki) is known only from Cerro Yapacana, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The Duida-Marahuaca Massif

The Duida-Marahuaca Massif (Macizo Duida-Marahauca in Spanish) is located in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state). One of the largest sandstone massifs within the Guiana Highlands, it is comprised of Cerro Duida and Cerro Marahuaca, with a massive ridge known as Cerro Petaca sandwiched between them. Still well-forested, much of this biologically important area is protected within the Duida- Marahuaca National Park.

The Duida-Marahuaca carrying frog (Stefania marahuaquensis) is confined to the forests of Cerro Duida and Cerro Marahuaca.

Shreve’s cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus shrevei) is confined to the Duida-Marahuaca Massif.

Cerro Duida is the largest component of the Duida- Marahuaca Massif. It is notably for its uneven and heavily inclined plateau.

Loveridge’s tree frog (Myersiohyla loveridgei) is known only from Cerro Duida, but may occur more widely.

The Duida tepui tree frog (Tepuihyla aecii) is known only from forests and shrubs of the high summit of Mount Duida, where it is fairly common.

Pulido’s gladiator tree frog (Boana pulidoi) is known only from Cerro Duida.

The Duida frog (Dischidodactylus duidensis) is known only from four specimens collected in 1929 from Cerro Duida.

The Duida Cochran frog (Cochranella duidaeana) is known only from the southern summit of Cerro Duida. Cerro Marahuaca shares a common base with Cerro Duida. It is much smaller than the latter, although taller.

Sosa’s toad (Metaphryniscus sosai) is known only from the summit of Cerro Marahuaca.

The Marahuaca tree frog (Myersiohyla inparquesi) is known only from the summit of Cerro Marahuaca.

The Marahuaca tepui tree frog (Tepuihyla luteolabris) is known only from Cerro Marhuaca.

Colonnello’s frog (Dischidodactylus colonnelloi) is known only from the summit of Cerro Marahuaca.

The Marahuaca robber frog (Pristimantis marahuaka) is known only from the summit of Cerro Marahuaca.

Cerro Huachamacari

Cerro Huachamacari (also known as Huachamakari or Kushamakari) is a relatievely low tepui located north-west of the Duida-Marahuaca Massif.

The Huachamacari tree frog (Myersiohyla aromatica) is known only from the summit of Mount Huachamacari.

The Auyán Massif

The Auyán Massif is located in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state).

The Auyán bush toad (Oreophrynella cryptica) is confined to the upper slopes and summit of the Auyán Massif, where it is threatened by human disturbance.

The Auyán carrying frog (Stefania schuberti) is known only from the summit of the Auyán Massif. Cerro El Sol is a small tepui located to the north-east of the Auyán Massif.

Huber’s bush toad (Oreophrynella huberi) is confined to Cerro El Sol.

The Aprada Massif

The Aprada Massif is located in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state), within Canaima National Park. It consists of two tepuis, Mount Aprada and the smaller Mount Araopán, connected by a steep, semicircular ridge.

Brewer’s cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus breweri) is known only from Mount Aprada.

The Chimantá Massif

The Chimantá Massif is a highly fragmented complex of tepuis located in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state). It is comprised of some 11 tepuis and is notable for its varied habitat types and extensive cave systems. The massif lies entirely within Canaima National Park.

The Chimantá cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus rufulus) is known only from a few tepuis within the Chimantá Massif.

The Aparamán Range

The Aparamán Range (also known as Los Testigos in Spanish) is a mountain chain located in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state). It consists of four rather small tepuis that form a bridge between the giant Auyán tepui to the west and Ptari-tepui to the east. These include Aparamán, Murisipán, Terekeyurén, and Kamarkawarai tepuis, the latter three sharing a common slope.

The Murisipán cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus murisipanensis) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Murisipán.

The Lema Range

The Lema Range (Sierra de Lema in Spanish) is an upland mountain range with tepuis located in eastern Venezuela (Bolívar state). Much of its old-growth forest remains intact.

The Sierra de Lema giant glass frog (Centrolene lema) is known only from a single locality within the Lema Range.

The Tapirapecó Range

The Tapirapecó Range (Sierra de Tapirapecó in Spanish/Serra do Tapirapecó in Portuguese) is located on the border between Venezuela (Amazonas state) and north-western Brazil (Amazonas).

The Tapirapecó cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus tamacuarensis) is known only from Pico Tamacuari, in the Tapirapecó Range of Venezuela.

The Tapirapecó cave-singing frog (Ceuthomantis cavernibardus) is known only from Pico Tamacuari, in the Tapirapecó Range of Venezuela.

The recounting robber frog (Pristimantis memorans) and the aimless robber frog (P. avius) are both known only from the Tapirapecó Range.

The Tapirapecó carrying frog (Stefania tamacuarina) is known only from the Tapirapecó Range.

The Neblina Range

The Neblina Range (Sierra de la Neblina in Spanish/Serra da Neblina in Portuguese) is located in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state) and north-western Brazil (Amazonas). Cerro Aracumini is a granitic mountain located in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state).

The Aracumuni cave-singing frog (Ceuthomantis aracamuni) is known only from the summit of Cerro Aracumini.

Rivero’s Cochran frog (Cochranella riveroi) is known only from the summit of Cerro Aracumini.

The Parima Mountains

The Parima Mountains (Sierra Parima in Spanish/Serra Parima in Portuguese) are located in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state) and northern Brazil (Roraima and Amazonas).

The Parima cryptic forest frog (Anomaloglossus parimae) is known only from a single locality in the Parima Range.

The Iwokrama Mountains

The Iwokrama Mountains are located in central Guyana. It features the Iwokrama Forest, one of the last pristine areas of forest in South America.

The Iwokrama caecilian (Microcaecilia iwokramae) appears to be confined to the Iwokrama Forest.

The Brazilian Highlands

The Brazilian Highlands or Brazilian Plateau (Planalto Brasileiro in Portuguese) covers most of the eastern, southern, and central portions of Brazil, in all approximately half of the country’s land area. Ancient basaltic lava flows gave birth to much of the region, although there is no longer any seismic or volcanic activity and the soils are now heavily eroded. The highlands are usually subdivided into three main plateaus, each punctuated by mountain ranges.

The reticulated leaf frog (Pithecopus ayeaye) is found widely but very sporadically within the Atlantic and Central plateaus.

The Atlantic Plateau

The Atlantic Plateau extends all along the eastern coast of Brazil (Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Bahia, Piauí, Tocantins, Maranhão, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo) and includes a number of rather ill-defined mountain ranges. Historically almost completely covered by rainforest and thus one of the richest areas for biodiversity in the world, today only about 7 per cent remains.

The cleft-headed juliomys (Juliomys rimofrons) is a type of rodent known only from three isolated localities in southeastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo).

The Rio de Janeiro arboreal rat (Phaenomys ferrugineus) is confined to Bocaina and Mantiqueira ranges in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo).

The São Paulo grass mouse (Akodon sanctipaulensis) is known only from a few localities in São Paulo state.

The grey-breasted parakeet (Pyrrhura griseipectus) is confined to two humid montane forest enclaves within the otherwise semi-arid north-east of Brazil (Ceará). It is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The cherry-throated tanager (Nemosia rourei) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1870 from a disputed locality in south-eastern Brazil (either Minas Gerais or Rio de Janeiro), along with a 1941 sighting of eight birds in Espírito Santo. Rediscovered in the latter state in 1998, it is now known from a handful of isolated localities there but remains one of the world’s rarest birds.

The grey-winged piha (Lipaugus conditus) is a rare type of cotinga known from a few scattered localities in south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro).

The Bahia tyrannulet (Phylloscartes beckeri) is a type of passerine bird confined to a few scattered localities in eastern Brazil (Bahia and Minas Gerais).

The Boa Nova tapaculo (Scytalopus gonzagai) is a type of passerine bird confined to two mountainous area in eastern Brazil (Bahia).

The cryptic treehunter (Cichlocolaptes mazarbarnetti) was a type of ovenbird known only from two montane localities in eastern coastal Brazil (Alagoas and Pernambuco). Last recorded in 2007, it is thought to be extinct.

The striped gladiator tree frog (Boana latistriata) is known only from two isolated localities in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais).

The Bocaina spiny-thumb frog (Crossodactylus grandis) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Brazil (Itatiaia National Park in Minas Gerais and in the Bocaina Range of São Paulo).

Bellon’s snouted tree frog (Ololygon belloni) is known only from two disjunct localities in south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo). Rank’s snouted tree frog (O. ranki) is known only from two disjunct localities in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais). Peixoto’s snouted tree frog (O. atrata) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo).

Ernesto’s marsupial frog (Gastrotheca ernestoi) is known from the Sea Ridge and Mantiqueira ranges in south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro).

The Apuana big-tooth frog (Megaelosia apuana) is known only from a single locality in eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo).

Luederwaldt’s highland frog (Holoaden luederwaldti) is known from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and São Paulo).

The Minas Gerais robber frog (Ischnocnema penaxavantinho) is known only from two, widely separated localities in eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais).

Alipio’s saddleback frog (Brachycephalus alipioi) is known only froma single locality in south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo).

Cardoso’s rapids frog (Paratelmatobius cardosoi) is known only from two localities within São Paulo state.

The Baturité Range

The Baturité Range (Serra de Baturité in Portuguese) is located in north-eastern Brazil (Ceará).

The Baturité prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou baturitensis) is a little-known species confined to the Baturité Mountains.

The Baturité shield frog (Adelophryne baturitensis) is known only from the Baturité Range.

The Maranguape Range (Serra de Maranguape in Portugese) is an extension of the Baturité Range.

The Maranguape shield frog (Adelophryne maranguapensis) is known only from the Maranguape Range.

The Quengo Range

The Quengo Range (Serra do Quengo in Portuguese) is located in north-eastern Brazil (Pernambuco)

The Quengo gladiator tree frog (Boana freicanecae) is known only from the Quengo Range.

The Araripe Plateau

The Araripe Plateau (Chapada do Araripe in Portuguese) is located in north-eastern Brazil (Ceará and Pernambuco).

The Araripe manakin (Antilophia bokermanni) is a type of passerine bird that appears to be confined to the north-eastern slope of the Araripe Plateau in Ceará, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The Jibóia Range

The Jibóia Range (Serra da ibóia in Portuguese) is located in eastern Brazil (Bahia).

The Jibóia marsupial frog (Gastrotheca flamma) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Jibóia Range.

The Espinhaço Range

The Espinhaço Range (Serra do Espinhaço in Portuguese) is located in eastern and south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and Bahia).

Moojen’s Atlantic spiny rat (Trinomys moojeni) is known only from a few localities in Minas Gerais.

The Espinhaço centipede snake (Tantilla boipiranga) is known only from a few specimens collected from two disjunct localities in Minas Gerais.

The lanceback snouted tree frog (Scinax curicica) is known only from two disjunct, high-altitude grassland localities in Minas Gerais.

Evangelista’s foam-nest frog (Physalaemus evangelistai) is known only from a small area within the Espinhaço Range (Minas Gerais).

Itacolom’s leaf frog (Phyllomedusa itacolomi) is known only from two localities within the Espinhaço Range (Minas Gerais).

The Espinhaço ditch frog (Leptodactylus camaquara) is known only from the Espinhaço Range (Minas Gerais).

The Espinhaço spiny-thumb frog (Crossodactylus cyclospinus) is known only from the Espinhaço Range.

Otavio’s torrent frog (Hylodes otavioi) and Ua’s torrent frog (H. uai) are both known only from the Espinhaço Range (Minas Gerais).

The Diamantina Plateau (Chapada Diamantina in Portuguese) is located in eastern Brazil (central Bahia state). Chapada Diamantina National Park was created in 1985.

The Diamantina tapaculo (Scytalopus diamantinensis) is a type of passerine bird confined to the Diamantina Plateau, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Diamantina tree frog (Bokermannohyla diamantina) is known only from a single locality on the Diamantina Plateau.

The Timbó Range

The Timbó Range (Serra do Timbó in Portuguese) is located in eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia).

The Timbó shining leaf frog (Phasmahyla timbo) is known only from the Timbó Range.

The Sincorá Range (Serra do Sincorá in Portuguese) is located in eastern Brazil (Bahia).

The Sincorá antwren (Formicivora grantsaui) is confined to the Sincorá Range, where it is threatened by loss of habitat due to fires.

The Sincorá robber frog (Haddadus aramunha) is confined to ‘campos rupestres’ (high-altitude, rocky, open grasslands) within the Sincorá Range.

The Cariri Range (Serra do Cariri in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and Bahia). It lies within Alto Cariri National Park.

The Cariri foam-nest frog (Physalaemus irroratus) is known only from the Cariri Range.

The Cabral Range (Serra do Cabral in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (north-central Minas Gerais). It is protected by Serro do Cabral State Park.

The Cabral snouted tree frog (Scinax cabralensis) is known only from the Serra do Cabral region.

The Cipó Range (Serra do Cipó in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais). It is protected within Serra do Cipó National Park.

The Cipó snouted tree frog (Julianus pinimus) is known only from the Cipó Range.

The large-headed leaf frog (Pithecopus megacephalus) is known only from the Cipó Range.

The Jaboticatubas foam-nest frog (Physalaemus deimaticus) is known only from the Cipó Range.

The Cipó smooth-horned frog (Proceratophrys cururu) is known only from the Cipó Range.

The Cipó dwarf swamp frog (Pseudopaludicola mineira) is known only from the Cipó Range.

The Itaconomi Range (Serra do Itacolomi in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais).

The Itacolomi foam-nest frog (Physalaemus erythros) is confined to ‘campos rupestres’ (high-altitude, rocky, open grasslands) in the Itacolomi Range.

The Caraça Range (Serra do Caraça in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (southern Minas Gerais).

The Caraça spiny-thumb frog (Crossodactylus trachystomus) is confined to the Caraça Range.

The Poços de Caldas Plateau

The Poços de Caldas Plateau is located in south-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais).

Becker’s gladiator tree frog (Boana beckeri) and the narrow-headed gladiator tree frog (B. stenocephala) are both known only from the Poços de Caldas Plateau.

Vulcania’s tree frog (Bokermannohyla vulcaniae) is known only from the Poços de Caldas Plateau.

The Poços de Caldas smooth-horned frog (Proceratophrys palustris) is confined to the Poços de Caldas Plateau.

The Canastra Range

The Canastra Range (Serra da Canastra in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (south-western Minas Gerais). It lies within Serra da Canastra National Park.

The Alpinopolis snouted tree frog (Scinax maracaya) is known only from the Canastra Range.

The Canastra snouted tree frog (Ololygon canastrensis) is known only from the Canastra Range.

The Fazenda Salto tree frog (Bokermannohyla ibitiguara) is known only from a small area within the Canastra Range.

The Mantiquera Range

The Mantiquera Range (Serra da Mantiqueira in Portuguese) is located in coastal south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo). It rises abruptly from the north-western bank of the Paraíba do Sul River and extends north-eastward for approximately 320 km. The mountains, which eventually merge with the Espinhaço Range, were originally covered in forest but have been heavily degraded on their lower slopes.

The Mantiqueira Atlantic tree rat (Phyllomys mantiqueirensis) is known only from a single locality north-east of São Paulo.

Vanzolini’s teiid (Colobodactylus dalcyanus) is a type of lizard known only from two widely separated localities within the Mantiquera Range (the Itatiaia Massif on the Rio de Janeiro–Minas Gerais border, and from Campos do Jordao State Park in São Paulo).

The Pico do Selado redbelly toad (Melanophryniscus peritus) is known only from Pico do Selado in Minas Gerais.

The Campos do Jordão rapids frog (Paratelmatobius mantiqueira) is known only from a single locality in São Paulo.

The Campos do Jordão big-tooth frog (Megaelosia jordanensis) is known only from a single locality in São Paulo. The Itapetinga big-tooth frog (M. boticariana) and Massart’s bigtooth frog (M. massarti) are both known only from montane streams within the Mantiquera Range (São Paulo).

The Pico de Bandeira button frog (Cycloramphus bandeirensis) is known only from Pico de Bandeira in Espírito Santo.

Magalhaes’ torrent frog (Hylodes magalhaesi) and Sazima’s torrent frog (H. sazimai) are each known only from two localities within the Mantiquera Range (Minas Gerais and São Paulo).

The Caparaó Range (Serra do Caparaó in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil on the border betwen Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais states. It lies within Caparaó National Park.

The Caparaó torrent frog (Hylodes babax) is known only from a single locality within the Caparaó Range.

Vanzolini’s torrent frog (H. vanzolinii) is known only from Caparaó National Park.

The Ibitipoca Range (Serra do Ibitipoca in Portuguese) is located in Minas Gerais.

The Ibitipoca tree frog (Bokermannohyla ibitipoca) is known only from the Ibitipoca Range.

The Ibitipoca foam-nest frog (Physalaemus rupestris) is known only from the Ibitipoca Range.

The Ibitipoca torrent frog (Hylodes amnicola) is known only from a single locality within the Ibitipoca Range.

The Brigadeiro Range (Serra do Brigadeiro in Portuguese) is located in Minas Gerais.

The Brigadeiro humming frog (Chiasmocleis mantiqueira) is known only from Serra do Brigadeiro State Park.

The Brigadeiro ditch frog (Leptodactylus cupreus) is known only from Serra do Brigadeiro State Park.

The Paranapiacaba Range (Serra de Paranapiacaba in Portuguese) is located in São Paulo state.

The spiny-knee leaf frog (Phrynomedusa fimbriata) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1898. Extensive searches have failed to record the species since, and it is presumably extinct.

The Paranapiacaba casque-headed tree frog (Trachycephalus lepidus) is known only from two specimens collected from the Paranapiacaba Range.

The Itatiaia Massif is located on the Rio de Janeiro–Minas Gerais border.

The Itatiaia tree frog (Bokermannohyla gouveai) is known only from Itatiaia National Park.

Lutz’s big-tooth frog (Megaelosia lutzae) is known only from Itatiaia National Park.

The Itatiaia highland frog (Holoaden bradei) is confined to the Itatiaia Massif, where it is threatened by habitat degradation.

Carvalho’s button frog (Cycloramphus carvalhoi) is known only from the Alto do Itatiaia on the Rio de Janeiro–Minas Gerais border.

Miranda-Ribeiro’s torrent frog (Hylodes glaber) and the regal torrent frog (H. regius) are both known only from the Itatiaia Massif.

Lutz’s rapids frog (Paratelmatobius lutzii) is known only from the Alto do Itatiaia in Minas Gerais, where it was at one time common but has not been recorded since 1978. Rapid extinction due to chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.

The Sea Ridge Range

The Sea Ridge Range (Serra do Mar in Portuguese) is located in coastal south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catarina).

The irregular-bellied rapids frog (Paratelmatobius poecilogaster) is known only from three localities within the Sea Ridge Range (São Paulo).

Mertens’ torrent frog (Hylodes mertensi) is known only from a single locality in São Paulo state. Heyer’s torrent frog (H. heyeri) is known only from the Sea Ridge Range (São Paulo and Paraná).

Pombal’s saddleback frog (Brachycephalus pombali) is known only from a single locality in Paraná. The rusty saddleback frog (B. ferruginus) is known only from Pico Marumbi in Paraná. Izecksohn’s saddleback frog (B. izecksohni) is known only from Pico Torre da Prata in Paraná. The brown saddleback frog (B. brunneus) is known only from Pico Caratuva in Paraná.

Pinto’s bromeliad frog (Crossodactylodes pintoi) is known only from a single locality in Rio de Janeiro state.

The Organ Range (Serra dos Órgãos in Portuguese) is located in Rio de Janeiro state. It is protected within Serra dos Órgãos National Park.

Mello’s snouted tree frog (Scinax melloi) is known only from the Organ Range.

The Teresópolis canebrake tree frog (Aplastodiscus flumineus) is known only from a single locality within Serra dos Órgãos National Park. The musical canebrake tree frog (A. musicus) is known only from the Organ Range.

The Órgãos robber frog (Ischnocnema erythromera) is known only from the Organ Range.

The Órgãos button frog (Cycloramphus organensis) is known only from a single locality within Serra dos Órgãos National Park. Stejneger’s button frog (C. stejnegeri) and Ohaus’ button frog (C. ohausi) are both known only from a few localities within the Organ Range.

The Órgãos highland frog (Holoaden pholeter) is known only from a single locality within the Organ Range.

The Órgãos torrent frog (Hylodes pipilans) is known only from the Organ Range.

Wandolleck’s river frog (Thoropa petropolitana) is known only from the Organ Range.

The Cubatão Range (Serra do Cubatão in Portuguese) is located in eastern São Paulo state.

The Cubatão robber frog (Ischnocnema nigriventris) was long known only from three specimens collected within the Cubatão Range, until a small population was discovered in a private reserve in 2006.

The Cantareira Range (Serra da Cantareira in Portuguese) is located in São Paulo state.

The Cantareira saddleback frog (Brachycephalus nodoterga) is known only from the Cantareira Range.

The Bocaina Range (Serra de Bocaina in Portuguese) is located in São Paulo state.

The Bocaina foam-nest frog (Physalaemus barrioi) is known only from the Bocaina Range.

The Bocaina big-tooth frog (Megaelosia bocainensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from Serra de Bocaina National Park.

The Bocaina saddleback frog (Brachycephalus vertebralis) is known only from the Bocaina Range.

The Bocaina robber frog (Ischnocnema pusilla) is known only from the Bocaina Range.

Gaige’s rapids frog (Paratelmatobius gaigeae) is known only from two localities within the Bocaina Range, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The Capivarí Range (Serra de Bocaina in Portuguese) is located in Paraná state.

The Capivarí redbelly toad (Melanophryniscus alipioi) is known only from the Capivarí Range.

The Pedra Branca do Araraquara Range (Serra da Pedra Branca do Araraquara in Portuguese) is located in Paraná state.

The Guaratuba foam-nest frog (Physalaemus insperatus) is known only from the Pedra Branca do Araraquara Range.

The Virgem Maria Range (Serra Virgem Maria in Portuguese) is located in Paraná state.

The Paraná robber frog (Ischnocnema paranaensis) is known only from an area of montane grassland within the Virgem Maria Range.

The Furada Range (Serra Furada in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (Santa Catarina). It lies within Serra Furada State Park.

The Furada redbelly toad (Melanophryniscus simplex) is known only from its original collection in 1970 from montane savanna within the Furada Range.

The Geral Range (Serra Geral in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (Santa Catarina and northern Rio Grande do Sul), and constitutes the southern portion of the Sea Ridge Mountains. It is home to the Aparados da Serra and Serra Geral national parks, which are notable for their enormous canyons.

The Geral button frog (Cycloramphus valae) is confined to high-altitude streams in the southern part of the Geral Range, where it was last reported in 1982.

The Central Plateau

The Central Plateau (Planalto Central in Portuguese), as its name suggests, occupies the central portions of Brazil (Pará, Goiás, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul states, as well as Distrito Federal). Approximately 85 per cent was once covered by cerrado vegetation, of which only a small remant remains today.

The transitional colilargo (Microakodontomys transitorius) is a mouse-like rodent known only from two specimens collected from the area of Brasilia National Park in southcentral Brazil (Federal District).

The Candango burrowing mouse (Juscelinomys candango) is known only from specimens collected in 1960 during the construction of the city of Brasilia, in central Brazil. It is thought to have gone extinct owing to urban sprawl.

Bokermann’s long-tongued bat (Lonchophylla bokermanni) is known only from three localities in Minas Gerais, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Presidente Olegário tree frog (Bokermannohyla ravida) is confined to a small area of south-central Brazil (Minas Gerais).

The Goiás gladiator tree frog (Boana ericae) and Burit’s gladiator tree frog (B. buriti) are each known only from a single locality in Goiás.

The Galheiro leaf frog (Phyllomedusa araguari) is known only from a single locality in Minas Gerais.

The plateau leaf frog (Pithecopus oreades) is known from a few scattered plateaus in Goias state and the Distrito Federal.

Vielliard’s smooth-horned frog (Proceratophrys vielliardi) is known only from a few localities in Goiás, Minas Gerais, and Distrito Federal.

Salvator’s escuerzo frog (Odontophrynus salvatori) is known only from Goiás and the Distrito Federal.

The Goiás ditch frog (Leptodactylus tapiti) is known only from a single locality in Goias state.

Bokermann’s humming frog (Chiasmocleis centralis) is known only from two localities in Goiás state.

The Carajás Mountains

The Carajás Mountains (Serra dos Carajás in Portuguese) are located in northern Brazil (Pará).

The Carajás dwarf swamp frog (Pseudopaludicola canga) is known only from the Carajás Mountains.

The Cachimbo Mountains

The Cachimbo Mountains (Serra do Cachimbo in Portuguese) are a low-elevation shrub and savanna upland region in northeastern Brazil (southern Pará state).

The Cachimbo yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus cachimbo) is known only from the Cachimbo Mountains, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Southern Plateau

The Southern Plateau advances inland in the southern and south-central portions of Brazil (Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul). As with the Atlantic Plateau large portions of this region were also formerly covered by rainforest, while Araucauria highland forest and cerrado grasslands took up much of the remainder.

The Cambará redbelly toad (Melanophryniscus cambaraensis) is known only from two disjunct localities in southeastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul).

Lowland Tropical Rainforests and Swamp Forests

The lowland tropical rainforests of this region are largely to be found within the Amazon River drainage, extending to parts of the Guianas and the Atlantic coast of Brazil.

The red-handed howler (Alouatta belzebul) is a type of monkey found disjunctly in north-eastern Brazil, with populations in both the south-eastern Amazon and Atlantic forests separated by drier areas. It is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.

Lowland Amazonian Rainforests

The Amazon Rainforest (Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia in Portugues/Selva Amazónica or Amazonía in Spanish) covers most of the Amazon basin of northern South America, and is the largest and most diverse tropical forest in the world. The vast majority is found in Brazil, with the remainder in parts of Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guiana, French Guiana, and Suriname. The Amazon represents over half of the planet’s remaining rainforests and contains more than onethird of all known living species. Up until the mid-twentieth century it had been relatively little disturbed by humans, although since then the devastation has intensified. Deforestation has been abetted by the construction of major bisecting highways that have opened up the interior. In recent years much of it has been deliberately burnt by ranchers, and the city of Manaus continues to expand like a slowly moving tsunami of concrete.

Humboldt’s spider monkey (Ateles chamek) occurs over a wide area of eastern Peru, northern and central Bolivia, and western and central Brazil. The white-cheeked spider monkey (A. marginatus) is found in central Brazil south of the Amazon River. Both are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.

Spix’s howler monkey (Alouatta discolor) is found in north-central Brazil (Pará and Mato Grosso), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

The Kaapori capuchin (Cebus kaapori) is a type of monkey confined to a relatively small area of north-eastern Brazil (Maranhão and eastern Pará), where it was first described in 1992. It is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

Hosom’s uakari (Cacajao hosomi) is a type of monkey found in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state) and northwestern Brazil (Amazonas). It is threatened by heavy hunting pressure.

Mittermeier’s bald-faced saki (Pithecia mittermeieri) is a type of monkey found in a relatively wide area of west-central Brazil south of the Amazon River, but is everywhere threatened by hunting, habitat destruction, and overcollection for the pet trade.

The black bearded saki (Chiropotes satanas) is confined to a relatively small area of north-eastern Brazil (Maranhão and Pará). The red-nosed bearded saki (C. albinasus) is found over a wide area of north-central Brazil (Pará, Amazonas, and Mato Grosso). Both are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation as well as by hunting.

The eastern black tamarin (Saguinus ursulus) is confined to a relatively small area of north-eastern Brazil (Pará and Maranhão). The western black tamarin (S. niger) is found in north-eastern Brazil (Pará) south of the Amazon River, including the island of Marajó. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

Sanborn’s squirrel (Sciurus sanborni) is known only from a few specimens collected in south-eastern Peru (Madre de Dios department).

Olrog’s four-eyed opossum (Philander olrogi) is known only from two localities in central Bolivia (Beni and Santa Cruz departments).

The Ucayali water rat (Amphinectomys savamis) is a semiaquatic species known only from two localities in eastern Peru (Loreto department).

Oyapock’s fish-eating rat (Neusticomys oyapocki) is known from a few localities within a relatively wide area of Surinam, French Guiana, and northern Brazil (Amapá and Pará). It is thought to be threatened by water contamination due to artisanal gold-mining activities.

The vulturine parrot (Pyrilia vulturina) is a naturally rare species from north-central and north-eastern Brazil, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The yellow-tailed parrot (Pionites xanthurus) is confined to north-western Brazil (Amazonas and Rôndonia). The green-thighed parrot (P. leucogaster) remains widespread within north-central Brazil. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and, possibly, hunting.

The Santarém parakeet (Pyrrhura amazonum) is found in north-eastern Brazil (Pará, Maranhão, and Tocantins), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Antioquia bristle-tyrant (Pogonotriccus lanyoni) is a rare species found patchily in the Andean foothill forests of north-western Colombia.

The bare-eyed antbird (Rhegmatorhina gymnops) is found in north-central Brazil, where it is dependent upon swarms of army ants for food. It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The imitator treefrog (Hyla imitator) is known only from a single specimen collected during the early twentieth century in west-central Brazil (Amazonas).

Yungas Forests

Yungas forests are narrow, elevationally transitional bands of forest located along parts of the Andes in Brazil and Peru.

The Yungas tyrannulet (Phyllomyias weedeni) is a type of flycatcher confined to a narrow band of Yungas forests in south-eastern Peru (Puno department) and western Bolivia (La Paz, Beni, and Cochabamba departments). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The yellow-rumped antwren (Euchrepomis sharpei) is a naturally rare species found patchily in Yungas forest in the Andean foothills of south-eastern Peru (Puno and Cusco departments) and western Bolivia (La Paz and Cochabamba departments).

Balzan’s ground snake (Atractus balzani) is known only from its original collection from Yungas forest in northwestern Bolivia (La Paz department) in 1891.

Lowland Terra Firma Rainforests

Terra firma literally means ‘firm earth’, and refers to rainforest that is not inundated by flooded rivers. This forest is noticeably taller and more biologically diverse than várzea or igapó forest. It is found only on dry, well-drained soils, and is characterized by such species as Brazil nut trees, rubber trees, and various tropical hardwoods.

Spix’s white-fronted capuchin (Cebus unicolor) is a type of monkey found over a wide area of the upper Amazon basin in eastern Peru, north-western Bolivia, and western and central Brazil, but is everywhere threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

Uta Hick’s bearded saki (Chiropotes utahickae) is a type of monkey found in east-central Brazil (Pará and Mato Grosso), where it is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.

The black-handed titi (Cheracebus medemi) is a type of monkey confined to a small area of south-western Colombia (Putomayo department), where it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.

The Caquetá titi (Plecturocebus caquetensis) is confined to a small area of Colombia (Caquetá department), where it is thought that the total population numbers less than 100. The ornate titi (P. ornatus) is found in west-central Colombia (Guaviare, Casanare, Cundinamarca, and Meta departments). Stephen Nash’s titi (P. stephennashi) occurs within a relatively small area of west-central Brazil (Amazonas). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

Goeldi’s monkey (Callimico goeldii) occurs in the upper Amazon of southern Colombia, eastern Peru, north-western Bolivia, and western Brazil (Acre and Amazonas). While its range is wide it is very patchy, and the species is evidently absent over most of it.

Marmosets of the genus Mico are found primarily in western and central Brazil south of the Amazon, where several species are threatened by loss of habitat. Marca’s marmoset (M. marcai) is known only from a few specimens collected and observed in west-central Brazil (south-eastern Amazonas). Rondon’s marmoset (M. rondoni) is known only from a small area of western Brazil (Rondônia). The Munduruku marmoset (M. munduruku) is known only from a small area of northcentral Brazil (central Amazonas). The black-headed marmoset (M. nigriceps) is known only from a small area of western Brazil (southern Amazonas and northern Rondônia). The golden-white marmoset (M. leucippe) is confined to a small area of north-central Brazil (Pará).

The pied bare-faced tamarin (Saguinus bicolor) is confined to small pockets of habitat in the vicinity of the city of Manaus in north-central Brazil (Amazonas), where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat, collection for use as pets, electrocution from power lines, disease, and predation by dogs and cats.

The fiery squirrel (Sciurus flammifer) is confined to a small area of north-central Venezuela (Bolívar state), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The slim-faced slender mouse opposum (Marmosops cracens) is confined to a small area of lowland rainforest in northwestern Venezuela (Falcón state).

Handley’s short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis handleyi) is known only from a single locality on the east bank of the Ucayali River in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department).

Vieira’s spiny tree rat (Echimys vieirai) is known only from two localities south of the Amazon River in central Brazil (Amazonas and Pará).

The Peruvian tree rat (Toromys rhipidurus) is known only from a few specimens collected from northern Peru (Loreto department).

LaVal’s disk-winged bat (Thyroptera lavali) is known only from a few specimens collected over a relatively wide area of north-western South America.

The least big-eared bat (Neonycteris pusilla) is known only from a small area of north-western Brazil (Amazonas), possibly extending into eastern Colombia.

Matses’ big-eared bat (Micronycteris matses) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department).

The blue-headed macaw (Primolius couloni) is found in eastern Peru, north-western Bolivia, and extreme western Brazil (Acre), where it is becoming rare due to collection for the international pet trade.

The crimson-bellied parakeet (Pyrrhura perlata) is found over a wide area of the central and western Brazil (Amazonas, Pará, and Mato Grosso) and adjacent areas of north-eastern Bolivia. The pearly parakeet (P. lepida) is a generally rare species divided into three subspecies found in north-eastern Brazil. The nominate form (P. l. lepida) is found in Pará and Maranhão. The sky-blue pearly parakeet (P. l. coerulescens) is confined to a small area of northern Maranhão. The Xingú pearly parakeet (P. l. anerythra) is confined to the catchment of the upper Xingú River and its tributaries. All are declining due to loss of habitat.

The golden parakeet (Guaruba guarouba) is found discontinuously in central Brazil (Pará, Rondônia, Mato Grosso, and Maranhão), where it is thought to number less than 2500 individuals. The largest known population (around 500) occurs along the Tapajós River in Pará.

The wattled curassow (Crax globulosa) was historically widespread within the western Amazon basin of southern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, north-western Bolivia, and western Brazil. The species appears to have been extirpated from Ecuador during the 1980s, and is now reduced to a few scattered localities everywhere else due to habitat destruction and hunting.

Trumpeters (Psophia) are chicken-like birds found within the Amazon basin, where they are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The black-winged trumpeter (P. obscura) confined to a relatively small area of north-eastern Brazil east of the Tocantins River (Pará and Mato Grosso). The olive-winged trumpeter (P. dextralis) is found in north-central Brazil between the Tapajós and Tocantins rivers, while the dark-winged trumpeter (P. viridis) occurs in west-central Brazil between the Madeira and Tapajós rivers.

The black-girdled barbet (Capito dayi) occurs over a wide area of central Brazil and adjacent areas of eastern Bolivia, but is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat.

The Cayenne nightjar (Setopagis maculosa) is known with certainty only from a single specimen collected in French Guiana in 1917. A possible second specimen was collected in 1982.

The selva cacique (Cacicus koepckeae) is an uncommon and elusive passerine bird known only from a few observations made in eastern Peru (Loreto, Ucayali, Cusco, and Madre de Dios departments) and western Brazil (Acre).

The rufous twistwing (Cnipodectes superrufus) is a type of flycatcher known only from remote areas of bamboo forest in far western Brazil (Acre), northern Bolivia (Pando department), and south-eastern Peru (Madre de Dios department).

The Allpahuayo antbird (Percnostola arenarum) is known from two small areas of northern Peru (Loreto department).

The Rondônia bushbird (Clytoctantes atrogularis) is known only from a handful of specimens and sightings over a relatively wide area of west-central Brazil (Amazonas, Rondônia, and Mato Grosso).

The lesser crescent-chested puffbird (Malacoptila minor) is confined to a small area of north-eastern coastal Brazil (Maranhão and Piauí), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Mishana tyrannulet (Zimmerius villarejoi) is confined to two geographically isolated areas of white-sand forest in north-eastern Peru (Loreto and San Martín departments). The two populations may represent distinct species.

The white-tailed tityra (Tityra leucura) is a type of passerine bird long known only from a single specimen collected in 1829 in south-central Brazil (Mato Grosso). It was sighted again in 2006 at the original collection site.

The golden-crowned manakin (Lepidothrix vilasboasi) is known only from a few specimens collected from a relatively small area of north-central Brazil (Pará). The opal-crowned manakin (L. iris) is found disjunctly within two area of northcentral and north-eastern Brazil (Pará, Maranhão, and Mato Grosso). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

Hoffmanns’ woodcreeper (Dendrocolaptes hoffmannsi) is found in central Brazil south of the Amazon River, where it is considered to be highly threatened by human disturbarnce.

Hinds’ lizard (Kaieteurosaurus hindsi) is known only from a single specimen collected in Kaieteur National Park, central Guyana.

The Vaupes anole (Anolis caquetae) is known only from a single locality in southastern Colombia (Vaupes department).

Pyburn’s false coral snake (Erythrolamprus pyburni) is known only from a single locality in central Colombia (Meta department).

The Colombian frog-eating snake (Diaphorolepis laevis) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Colombia (Amazonas department).

The Maracaibo house snake (Thamnodynastes ceibae) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1963 from nothwestern Venezuela (Trujillo state).

Filippi’s ground snake (Atractus favae) is known only from nineteenth-century records originating from somewhere in northern Guyana and Suriname. The Paraiso ground snake (A. avernus) is known only from a single locality in southwestern Colombia (Caquetá department). The Baja Tambopata ground snake (A. paravertebralis) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Peru (Madre de Dios department).

Steinbach’s ivory-naped snake (Eutrachelophis steinbachi) is known only from its original collection during the early twentieth century in central Bolivia (Santa Cruz department). Virtually no habitat remains at this locality, and the species may be extinct.

Haad’s blind snake (Liotyphlops haadi) is known only from two specimens collected from south-eastern Colombia (Vaupés and Amazonas departments).

Ruthven’s burrowing snake (Apostolepis tenuis) is known only from two specimens collected during the early twentieth century from central and north-western Bolivia (Beni and Santa Cruz departments).

The Anori stubfoot toad (Atelopus sanjosei) is known only from two disjunct localities in north-western Colombia (Antioquia department). Last recorded in 1988, it may be extinct. The camouflaged stubfoot toad (A. pulcher) is confined to a small area of north-central Peru (San Martín and Loreto departments). The sparkling stubfoot toad (A. spumarius) is found widely but patchily in northern and western Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname. It is thought to be at risk of significant declines due to chytridiomycosis. The Cayenne stubfoot toad (A. flavescens) is known from French Guiana and north-central Brazil (Amapá).

The phantasmagorical fringe-limbed tree frog (Ecnomiohyla phantasmagoria) is known only from a single specimen collected during the 1940s from an imprecise locality in north-western Colombia (Antioquia or Bolívar department). Records from north-western Ecuador (Esmeraldas province) almost certainly correspond to an as-yet undescribed species.

The Uaupés yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus tintinnabulum) is known only from a single locality in north-western Brazil (Amazonas). The Teperinha yellow tree frog (D. minimus) is known only from a single locality in north-central Brazil (Pará).

The Santarém tree frog (Dryaderces inframaculata) is known only from a single locality in north-central Brazil (Pará).

Laura’s glass frog (Nymphargus laurae) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Ecuador (Orellana province).

The Huanchaca glass frog (Teratohyla adenocheira) is known only from Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in north-eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department).

Williamson’s marsupial frog (Gastrotheca williamsoni) is known only from its original collection in 1922 from northern coastal Venezuela (Carabobo state).

The Mato Grosso four-eyed frog (Pleurodema fuscomaculatum) is known only from a small area of south-central Brazil (Mato Grosso).

The blessed poison dart frog (Ranitomeya benedicta) is confined to a small area of north-central Peru (San Martín and Loreto departments).

Several poison dart frogs of the genus Ameerega are threatened by loss of habitat. Inger’s poison dart frog (A. ingeri) is known only from a single locality in south-western Colombia (Caquetá department). All forest there has been entirely destroyed, and the species is most likely extinct. The emerald poison dart frog (A. smaragdina) is known only from a single locality in south-central Peru (Pasco department). The Palenque poison dart frog (A. erythromos) is known from two disjunct localities in north-western Ecuador (Pichincha and Esmeraldas provinces). The red-bellied poison dart frog (A. rubriventris) is confined to a small area of central Peru (Ucayali department). The Cainarachi poison dart frog (A. cainarachi) is confined to a small area of north-central Peru (San Martín department). Schulte’s poison dart frog (A. pongoensis) is confined to a small area of north-central Peru (Loreto and San Martín departments).

The Puerto Nariño rocket frog (Hyloxalus faciopunctulatus) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Colombia (Amazonas department). The Lamas rocket frog (H. craspedoceps) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (San Martín department). The free-toed rocket frog (H. eleutherodactylus) is known only from a single locality in north-central Peru (San Martín department). The Porto Walter rocket frog (H. chlorocraspedus) is known only from a single locality in western Brazil (Acre).

Several cryptic forest frogs of the genus (Allobates) are threatened by loss of habitat. Boulenger’s cryptic forest frog (A. ranoides) is known only from a single locality in central Colombia (Meta department), where it may be extinct. The Rio Branco cryptic forest frog (A. subfolionidificans) is known only from a single locality in western Brazil (Acre). Crombie’s cryptic forest frog (A. crombiei) is known only from a small area of north-eastern Brazil (Pará). The Bolívar cryptic forest frog (A. sanmartini) is known only from a small area of central Venezuela (Bolívar state). The Mabura cryptic forest frog (A. spumaponens) is known only from the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in central Guyana. The Manaus cryptic forest frog (A. caeruleodactylus) is known only from a single locality near Manaus in north-central Brazil (Amazonas). The Villavicencio cryptic forest frog (A. juanii) is known only from a small area of central Colombia (Meta department).

The Waorani robber frog (Pristimantis waoranii) is known only from a small area of north-eastern Ecuador (Orellana province). Luscombe’s robber frog (P. luscombei) is known only from a small area of northern Peru (Loreto department).

Bumbameubo’s oval frog (Elachistocleis bumbameuboi) is known only from two disjunct localities in north-eastern Brazil (Maranhão). The Surumu oval frog (E. surumu) is known only from two disjunct localities in north-western Brazil (Roraima).

The Neblina frog (Adelastes hylonomos) is only known from the foothills of Cerro Neblina in southern Venezuela (Amazonas state), where it may be threatened by mining and quarrying activity.

The compressed caecilian (Caecilia pressula) is known only from a single locality in southern Guyana.

The Quisto Cocha caecilian (Oscaecilia koepckeorum) is known only from a single locality in northern Peru (Loreto department). The forest from which it was collected has since been cleared to make way for a tourist lodge. The Pichincha caecilian (O. equatorialis) is known only from a single, imprecise locality in north-western Ecuador (Pichincha province). Zweifel’s caecilian (O. zweifeli) is known only from imprecise localities in Guyana and French Guiana.

Várzea Forests

Várzea is a type of floodplain forest (usually located along river banks and on islands) that is inundated during the rainy season.

The bald uakari (Cacajao calvus) is a type of monkey divided into four subspecies. The white bald uakari (C. c. calvus) is mainly confined to the large fluvial island bordered by the Japurá, Auatí-Paraná, and Solimões rivers in north-western Brazil. Novaes’ bald uakari (C. c. novaesi) is confined to the upper Jurua River region in north-western Brazil (Amazonas). The red bald uakari (C. c. rubicundus) is found disjunctly within the western Amazon basin of northwestern Brazil. The Ucayali bald uakari (C. c. ucayalii) is found in the western Amazon basin of eastern Peru (Loreto and Ucayali departments) and north-western Brazil (Amazonas and Acre). All are threatened by loss of habitat and hunting.

Vanzolini’s squirrel monkey (Saimiri vanzolinii) is confined to a small area of north-western Brazil (Amazonas). The entire range lies within the Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve.

The scaled spinetail (Cranioleuca muelleri) is a rare type of passerine bird found along the banks of the lower Amazon River from its mouth to the vicinity of Manaus in central Brazil. It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The hoary-throated spinetail (Synallaxis kollari) is found only in a small area of northern Brazil (Roraima) and western Guyana.

The Delta Amacuro softail (Thripophaga amacurensis) is a type of ovenbird confined to the Orinoco River delta in northeastern Venezuela (Delta Amacuro state). The Orinoco softail (T. cherriei) is known only from a tiny area of south-western Venezuela (Amazonas state) and north-eastern Colombia (Guainía department).

The black-tailed antbird (Myrmoborus melanurus) is found along the various tributaries of the upper Amazon River in northern Peru (Loreto department) and far western Brazil (Amazonas). The ash-breasted antbird (M. lugubris) is divided into four subspecies. The nominate form (M. l. lugubris) is found along the Amazon River in northern Brazil (Amazonas and Pará). Berlepsch’s ash-breasted antbird (M. l. berlepschi) is found in extreme south-eastern Colombia (Amazonas department), north-eastern Ecuador (Napo province), north-eastern Peru (Loreto department), and western Brazil (Amazonas). The Anavilhanas ashbreasted antbird (M. l. stictopterus) is found along the Negro and Solimões rivers of north-western Brazil. The Madeira ash-breasted antbird (M. l. femininus) is found along the lower Madeira River in north-western Brazil. All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The pearly breasted conebill (Conirostrum margaritae) is a type of passerine bird found widely but patchily on islands within the Amazon River and its major tributaries in northeastern Peru, central Brazil, and north-western Bolivia.

The várzea piculet (Picumnus varzeae) is a small woodpecker from east-central Brazil (Amazonas and Pará). It is threatened by deforestation and hydroelectric projects.

The Oriximina worm lizard (Amphisbaena tragorrhectes) is known only from a single specimen collected from northcentral Brazil (Pará). Stejneger’s worm lizard (A. stejnegeri) is known only from a single locality in north-central Guyana.

Fuente’s tree frog (Boana fuentei) is known only from a single locality in north-central Suriname.

Helena’s slender-legged tree frog (Osteocephalus helenae) is known only from a single, non-defined locality in Guyana.

Joly’s snouted tree frog (Scinax jolyi) is known only from a single locality in northern coastal French Guiana.

The Caparú Ranch white-lipped frog (Hydrolaetare caparu) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department).

The Rockstone poison dart frog (Dendrobates nubeculosus) is known only from a single specimen collected during the 1980s along the upper Essequibo River in north-central Guyana.

Igapó

Igapó is essentially freshwater swamp forest that is typically found around lakes and the lower reaches of rivers. They receive at least 6 months of rainfall annually, at which time the trees are submerged underwater for extended periods (and in some cases permanently). Igapó trees are shorter than those from non-flooded forest areas, and many have stilt roots or flying buttresses to lend structural support.

The Castanho cryptic forest frog (Allobates nidicola) is known only from a single locality in north-central Brazil (Amazonas).

Lowland Atlantic Rainforest

Long isolated from the Amazon basin by the drier cerrado region to its west, the Atlantic Forest (Mata Atlântica in Portuguese) is located in eastern and south-eastern Brazil and adjacent areas of north-eastern Argentina and Paraguay. Home to an extraordinarily diverse fauna, most of it persists now in mere islands of forest, all that remains after centuries of clearing for agriculture and urban development. Indeed, of the original forest that once blanketed the south-eastern coast of South America it is estimated that just 7 per cent remains. Added to the conservation challenges is the fact that two of the world’s largest cities – Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo – lie within the region.

The black-handed masked titi (Callicebus melanochir) is confined to eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia, Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais). The black-headed masked titi (C. personatus) occurs within scattered forest patches coastal eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The lion tamarins (Leontopithecus) are a group of small, brightly coloured monkeys named for the distinctive mane that surrounds their face. All have been the focus of intensive conservation work for many decades, both in the coastal forest remnants that they inhabit in eastern and south-eastern Brazil as well as in captivity. The golden lion tamarin (L. rosalia) is confined to lowland forest fragments in Rio de Janeiro state, primarily in the Poço das Antas and Fazenda União biological reserve and on private lands. The first population estimate for this species, in 1972, was between 400 and 500. By 1981 that number had been reduced to less than 200. Reintroduction programmes based on a large worldwide captive population have increased the wild population to around 3200. The golden-headed lion tamarin (L. chrysomelas) is confined to lowland and pre-montane forest fragments in Bahia state. There are currently thought to be around 6000 left in the wild, with the Una Biological Reserve containing the largest number. The black or golden-rumped lion tamarin (L. chrysopygus) is endemic to São Paulo state, almost exclusively in the lowland swamp forests of Morro do Diablo State Park. Thought to be extinct for 65 years until its rediscovery in 1970, it remains among the rarest of all New World primates. The total population is thought to be no more than 1000. Finally, the black-faced lion tamarin (L. caissara) was unexpectedly discovered in 1990 on the island of Superagüi, off the coast of Paraná state. Subsequent investigations have led to the finding of additional populations on the adjacent mainland in both Paraná and São Paulo states. The total number is around 400, mainly within the confines of Superagüi National Park and Jacupiranga State Park. Unlike the other three species it has never been kept in captivity.

The single-striped opossum (Monodelphis unistriata) is a possibly extinct species known only from two specimens collected from south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo) in 1821, and a third from north-eastern Argentina (Misiones province) in 1899.

The Guahiba gracile mouse opossum (Cryptonanus guahybae) is known only from a few localities in south-eastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and Paraná).

The bristle-spined rat (Chaetomys subspinosus) is confined to south-eastern Brazil (south-eastern Bahia state), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The short-furred Atlantic tree rat (Phyllomys unicolor) was long known only from a single specimen collected in the 1840s from coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). In recent years a second was found in the same area after an extensive search, but the species is clearly very close to extinction. Kerr’s Atlantic tree rat (P. kerri) is known only from a single locality in coastal south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). Lund’s Atlantic tree rat (P. lundi) is known only from two disjunct localities in south-eastern coastal Brazil (Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro). The pallid Atlantic tree rat (P. lamarum) is found widely but patchily in coastal eastern Brazil (Paraíba, Bahia, and Minas Gerais). All are threatened by loss of habitat.

The dark-caped Atlantic spiny rat (Trinomys mirapitanga) is known only from a few specimens collected from two localities in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). The spiked Atlantic spiny rat (T. paratus) is known only from a few localities in coastal eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo).

The painted tree rat (Callistomys pictus) is confined to a small and highly fragmented area of coastal eastern Brazil (north-eastern Bahia).

The Guaraní akodont (Brucepattersonius guarani) is a type of rodent known only from a single locality in north-eastern Argentina (Misones province). The red-bellied akodont (B. igniventris) is known only from a few specimens collected from a small area in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

The hairy-tailed bat (Lasiurus ebenus) is known only from two specimens collected in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

The Pernambuco pygmy owl (Glaucidium mooreorum) is confined to eastern Brazil (Pernambuco and Alagoas), where the almost complete destruction of its habitat has rendered it extremely rare and possibly extinct.

The white-collared kite (Leptodon forbesi) is a type of bird of prey confined to coastal eastern Brazil (Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraíba, and Sergipe), where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The red-billed curassow (Crax blumenbachii) was formerly widespread in eastern Brazil from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro states. By the 1970s, however, the species had been so seriously depleted by habitat destruction and hunting that it was thought to be extinct in the wild, with only about 50 still surviving in a small, partly artificial reserve. Since then a successful captive breeding programme has enabled reintroduction to a number of other protected areas. Nevertheless, the range remains severely fragmented and the total population very small.

The Alagoas curassow (Mitu mitu) was historically known from Pernambuco in eastern coastal Brazil, where it went unrecorded from the mid-seventeenth century until 1951 when it was rediscovered in Alagoas. Beginning in the early 1970s it was found in a few forested localities within this region, but was ultimately extirpated by hunters during the 1980s. It has since survived only in two small captive populations, although in recent years an apparently suitable forest fragment has been identified for future reintroduction efforts.

The black-fronted piping-guan (Pipile jacutinga) is a large, turkey-like bird found patchily in south-eastern Brazil and adjacent areas of south-eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina. It has become quite rare in recent decades due to hunting and habitat destruction.

The ochre-marked parakeet (Pyrrhura cruentata) was historically common throughout much of south-eastern Brazil (Bahia, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro). Its range is now highly fragmented and largely comprised of isolated protected areas.

The Atlantic black-breasted woodpecker (Celeus tinnunculus) is confined to forest remnants in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia and Espírito Santo).

The seven-coloured tanager (Tangara fastuosa) is found patchily in eastern coastal Brazil (Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraíba, and, possibly, Rio Grande do Norte), where it is threatened by loss of habitat and heavy trapping for the cagebird trade.

The Alagoas foliage-gleaner (Philydor novaesi) was a type of passerine bird that was only ever collected at two localities in eastern Brazil (Alagoas and Pernambuco), where it was last recorded in 2011. A victim of massive habitat destruction, it is now thought to be extinct.

The Pernambuco foliage-gleaner (Automolus lammi) is confined to lowland forest fragments in eastern Brazil (Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, and Sergipe).

Pinto’s spinetail (Synallaxis infuscata) is found patchily within a small area of eastern coastal Brazil (Alagoas and Pernambuco).

The striated softail (Thripophaga macroura) is known only from a few localities across a relatively wide area of eastern and south-eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro).

The pink-legged graveteiro (Acrobatornis fonsecai) is a type of passerine bird confined to a small area of eastern Brazil (south-eastern Bahia and north-eastern Minas Gerais).

Snow’s antwren (Myrmotherula snowi) was, until relatively recently, known from a few scattered localities in north-eastern coastal Brazil (Alagoas and Pernambuco), but may now be confined to a single area of the former state, where it is on the brink of extinction. Salvadori’s antwren (M. minor) is found patchily in coastal south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, Santa Catarina, and possibly Bahia). Both are seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

The orange-bellied antwren (Terenura sicki) is a rare species known only from a few localities in eastern Brazil (Alagoas and Pernambuco).

Kaempfer’s tody tyrant (Hemitriccus kaempferi) is known only from a few localities within a small area of coastal southeastern Brazil (Santa Catarina and Paraná), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Bahia tapaculo (Eleoscytalopus psychopompus) is a type of passerine bird long known only from three specimens collected from two localities in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). Thought to be extinct, it has since been rediscovered in a few isolated areas.

The banded cotinga (Cotinga maculata) was historically found across much of eastern and south-eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro). Seriously threatened by loss of habitat and capture for the cage-bird trade, it has long been extirpated from the southern part of its range and is now confined to only a few localities, mostly in protected areas.

Wied’s tyrant-manakin (Neopelma aurifrons) is a type of passerine bird found in eastern Brazil (Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro). Rare and little-known, it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The fringe-backed fire-eye (Pyriglena atra) is a type of passerine bird confined to a small, narrow belt of forest patches in eastern Brazil (Bahia and Sergipe).

The plumbeous antvireo (Dysithamnus plumbeus) is found widely but patchily in eastern and south-eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro).

The buff-throated purpletuft (Iodopleura pipra) is a type of canopy-dwelling passerine bird found widely but patchily in eastern and south-eastern coastal Brazil (Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo).

The Alagoas tyrannulet (Phylloscartes ceciliae) is found patchily within a small area of eastern coastal Brazil (Alagoas and Pernambuco), where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction.

The kinglet calyptura (Calyptura cristata) is a small passerine bird that was apparently not uncommon within a small area of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro and possibly São Paulo) during the nineteenth century, but quickly declined to the point of extinction. It went unrecorded during the twentieth century until 1996, when two were observed in the foothills of the Organ Range. The species has not been reliably seen since, despite extensive searches.

The hook-billed hermit (Glaucis dohrnii) is a type of hummingbird known only from a few widely scattered localities in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia and Espírito Santo).

The shielded worm lizard (Amphisbaena scutigerum) is known only from a small area of coastal south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro).

Cropan’s tree boa (Corallus cropanii) is a very rare species known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). Last seen in 1953, it was rediscovered in 2017, but is still known only from a few specimens.

The Atlantic Forest bushmaster (Lachesis muta rhombeata), one of the world’s largest venomous snakes, is confined to the coastal forests of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Norte).

Piraja’s lancehead (Bothrops pirajai) is a type of venomous snake known only from a small area of eastern Brazil (Bahia and possibly Minas Gerais).

Ronaldo’s snake (Calamodontophis ronaldoi) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Brazil (Paraná).

Stawiarsky’s toad (Dendrophryniscus stawiarskyi) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Brazil (Paraná). Carvalho’s toad (D. carvalhoi) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo). Kraus’ toad (D. krausae) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul). Boulenger’s toad (D. proboscideus) is known only from three widely separated forest fragments in eastern Brazil (Bahia and Minas Gerais).

The Santa Catarina redbelly toad (Melanophryniscus spectabilis) is known only from a single locality in southeastern Brazil (Santa Catarina). The admirable redbelly toad (M. admirabilis) and the Torres redbelly toad (M. macrogranulosus) are each known only from a small area of southeastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul). All are seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

Izecksohn’s tree frog (Bokermannohyla izecksohni) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). Lange’s tree frog (B. langei) is known only from three specimens collected in 1963 from a small area of southeastern Brazil (Paraná).

Several snouted tree frogs of the genus Ololygon are seriously threatened by loss of habitat. The Santa Teresa snouted tree frog (O. arduous) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo). The Murici snouted tree frog (O. muriciensis) is known only from a single locality in eastern Brazil (Alagoas). The Juréia snouted tree frog (O. jureia) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). Heyer’s snouted tree frog (O. heyeri) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo). Skuk’s snouted tree frog (O. skuki) is known only from two disjunct localities in eastern Brazil (Alagoas and Pernambuco).

Kautsky’s snouted tree frog (Scinax kautskyi) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo). Camposseabra’s snouted tree frog (S. camposseabrai) is known only from two localities in eastern Brazil (Bahia and Minas Gerais).

Dutra’s yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus dutrai) is known only from two localities in eastern Brazil (Sergipe and Alagoas). Rusch’s yellow tree frog (D. ruschii) is known only from two localities 60 km apart in south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo). The São Vicente yellow tree frog (D. limai) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

The Campo Grande gladiator tree frog (Boana cymbalum) is known only from a small area in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

The Lagoa Nova lime tree frog (Sphaenorhynchus mirim) is known only from a single pond in eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo), where all of the original surrounding forest has been converted into grassland. Paulo Alvin’s lime tree frog (S. pauloalvini) was long known only from a single locality in eastern Brazil (Bahia), where it was last recorded in 1973. It was rediscovered at another locality in Espírito Santo in 2007. The Maracás lime tree frog (S. bromelicola) is known for certain only from a single locality in eastern Brazil (Bahia), but may occur a little more widely.

The remarkable shining leaf frog (Phasmahyla spectabilis) is confined to isolated forest patches in eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and southern Bahia).

Bokermann’s coloured leaf frog (Phrynomedusa bokermanni) is known only from a single locality in coastal southeastern Brazil (São Paulo).

Wucherer’s heart-tongued frog (Phyllodytes wuchereri) is known only from three localities in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). The spotted heart-tongued frog (P. maculosus) is known only from a small area of eastern Brazil (north-eastern Minas Gerais and southern Bahia). The Alagoas–Pernambuco heart-tongued frog (P. gyrinaethes) is known only from two localities in eastern Brazil (Alagoas and Pernambuco).

Several species of foam-nest frog (Physalaemus) are threatened by loss of habitat. Bokermann’s foam-nest frog (P. bokermanni) and the Ubatuba foam-nest frog (P. atlanticus) are each known only from small areas of degraded forest in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). The Angra dos Reis foamnest frog (P. angrensis) and Soares’ foam-nest frog (P. soaresi) are both known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro). The Una foam-nest frog (P. camacan) is known only from the Una Biological Reserve in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). The Alagoas foam-nest frog (P. caete) is known only from a small area of eastern Brazil (Alagoas).

The Ajurauna tropical bullfrog (Adenomera ajurauna) is known only from a small area of coastal south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

The Bahia yellow frog (Stereocyclops histrio) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1944 from coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). It was rediscovered in remnant Atlantic Forest within the Una Biological Reserve in 1999, and is now known from four localities.

The Bahia shield frog (Adelophryne pachydactyla) is known only from a few specimens collected at two localities in coastal eastern Brazil (south-central Bahia).

Several species of button frog (Cycloramphus) are threatened by loss of habitat. Dusén’s button frog (C. duseni) is known only from a few specimens collected in 1911 from south-eastern Brazil (Paraná). The rough button frog (C. asper), the Quecaba button frog (C. catarinensis), and the Cedros button frog (C. cedrensis) are each confined to a small area of south-eastern Brazil (Santa Catarina). The strong-headed button frog (C. acangatan) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). Miguel’s button frog (C. migueli) is known only from a small area of coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). The Juréia-Itatins button frog (C. juimirim) is known only from the Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). Diringshofen’s button frog (C. diringshofeni) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (Santa Catarina). Miranda Ribeiro’s button frog (C. mirandaribeiroi) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Brazil (Paraná). Izecksohn’s button frog (C. izecksohni) is known from a few localities in southeastern Brazil (São Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catarina). Werner’s button frog (C. bolitoglossus) is known from two localities in south-eastern Brazil (Paraná and Santa Catarina).

Moehring’s smooth-horned frog (Proceratophrys moehringi) and the Cachoerio do Itapemirim smooth-horned frog (P. phyllostomus) are each confined to a small area of eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo). Morato’s smooth-horned frog (P. moratoi) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

Carvalho’s bug-eyed frog (Zachaenus carvalhoi) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (central Espírito Santo).

Lutzs’ spiny-thumb frog (Crossodactylus lutzorum) is known only from a single locality in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). Dante’s spiny-thumb frog (C. dantei) is known only from a single locality in eastern Brazil (Alagoas).

Lutz’s river frog (Thoropa lutzi) is known only from two small areas of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, and south-eastern Minas Gerais).

The Itatins torrent frog (Hylodes dactylocinus) is known only from a small area of coastal south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

The Santa Teresa Guanabara frog (Euparkerella tridactyla) and the Mimoso do Sul Guanabara frog (E. robusta) are both known only from a single locality in eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo).

Schirch’s frog (Dasypops schirchi) is confined to a small area of coastal eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo and southern Bahia).

The Igaraçu robber frog (Haddadus plicifer) is known only from its original collection during the late nineteenth century from coastal eastern Brazil (Pernambuco).

Four robber frogs of the genus Ischnocnema are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation. The Boracéia robber frog (I. randorum), Gehrt’s robber frog (I. gehrti), and Heyer’s robber frog (I. spanios) are each known only from a single small area of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). The warty robber frog (I. verrucosa) is known only from three localities in south-eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais).

The Una humming frog (Chiasmocleis gnoma), Cruz’s humming frog (C. crucis), and Cordeiro’s humming frog (C. cordeiroi) are each known only from a small area of eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia). The Alagoas humming frog (C. alagoana) is confined to a small area of coastal eastern Brazil (Alagoas). The lacrimose humming frog (C. lacrimae) is known from a few disjunct localities in eastern and southeastern Brazil (Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo).

Lutz’s cryptic forest frog (Allobates olfersioides) is found widely but patchily in eastern and south-eastern coastal Brazil. It is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat and chytridiomycosis.

The Sergipe ditch frog (Leptodactylus hylodes) is known only from a single specimen collected during the midnineteenth century in eastern coastal Brazil (Sergipe).

The worm-patterned caecilian (Mimosiphonops vermiculatus) is known only from a few specimens collected in southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro).

The Joinville caecilian (Oscaecilia hypereumeces) is known only from two specimens collected at a single locality in southeastern Brazil (Santa Catarina).

The Bahia aquatic caecilian (Chthonerpeton exile) is known only from a single (now lost) specimen collected from somewhere in eastern Brazil (Bahia).

Lowland Dry Forests

Areas of lowland and pre-montane dry forest as well as gallery woodlands are to be found throughout the Amazonian Region.

The cone-billed tanager (Conothraupis mesoleuca) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1938 from south-central Brazil (Mato Grosso). Thought to be extinct, it was rediscovered in 2003 and is now known from three apparently disjunct populations in Goias, Mato Grosso, and Pará. Coastal Caribbean Lowland Dry Forests Small areas of seasonal lowland dry forest are located in northern Colombia and north-western Venezuela.

The dryland mouse opossum (Marmosa xerophila) is confined to a small area around the mouth of Lake Maracaibo in coastal north-western Venezuela and north-eastern Colombia.

Lowland Atlantic Dry Forests

Areas of lowland Atlantic dry forest (known as mata-de-cipó in Portuguese) occur between the cerrado savannas of central Brazil and the dry caatinga shrublands of north-eastern Brazil (northern Minas Gerais, western Bahia, and parts of Piauí).

The slender antbird (Rhopornis ardesiacus) is confined to a small area of dry forest fragments in eastern Bahia and northeastern Minas Gerais.

Tropical Grasslands and Savannas

Areas of tropical grassland and savannas are to be found throughout the Amazonian Region. Perhaps the most notable is the Guianan Savanna, an area of rolling upland plains on the Guiana Shield between the Amazon and Orinoco basins, dotted occasionally with forest. It comprises three large, unconnected sections, the main one of which is located in south-eastern Venezuela (the part known as the Gran Sabana) and extending to the Brazilian state of Roraima and western Guyana. There is a smaller one to the south-east in the Brazilian state of Pará, extending into southern Suriname. The smallest and most easterly section is in the Brazilian state of Amapá. Additional, isolated fragments of the Guianan Savanna are found to the north of the main section, in the Pakarima foothills of Guyana. Other significant grassland areas occur to the south of the Amazon Rainforest in southern Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay.

The white-winged nightjar (Eleothreptus candicans) is known only from a few widely scattered localities in southern Brazil, northern Bolivia, and south-eastern Paraguay.

The ochre-breasted pipit (Anthus nattereri) is a type of passerine bird found widely but patchily in south-eastern Brazil, southern Paraguay, north-eastern Argentina, and northern Uruguay. It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The black and tawny seedeater (Sporophila nigrorufa) is known only from a few localities in south-western Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul) and eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

Krauczuk’s redbelly toad (Melanophryniscus krauczuki) is confined to a small area of north-eastern Argentina (Misiones province).

Joly’s ditch frog (Leptodactylus jolyi) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

Flooded Savannas and Grasslands

There are still extensive areas of flooded savanna throughout this region, although all are under threat by human development.

The rhea yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus rhea) is knownonly from a single locality in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). Studer’s yellow tree frog (D. studerae) is known only from a single locality in eastern Brazil (Alagoas). The Ribas do Rio Pardo yellow tree frog (D. cerradensis) is known only from a single locality in south-central Brazil (Matto Grosso do Sul). The Araguaya yellow tree frog (D. araguaya) is known only from a single locality in southcentral Brazil on the Goiás–Mato Grosso border. The Pando yellow tree frog (D. joannae) is known only from two localities in northern Bolivia (Beni and Pando departments).

Llanos

The llanos (Los Llanos in Spanish) are a vast tropical grassland floodplain located to the east of the Andes in northern and central Venezuela and northern Colombia. One of the world’s largest savanna and wetland complexes, it is drained by the Orinoco River and a multitude of smaller rivers, streams, and marshes.

The northern long-nosed armadillo (Dasypus sabanicola) is found throughout the llanos region but is everywhere threatened by loss of habitat.

Pantanal

Located mostly within south-western Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul), but extending into parts of eastern Bolivia and northern Paraguay, the Pantanal is the world’s largest tropical wetland. Essentially a mosaic of flooded grasslands and savannas, gallery forests, and dry forests, during the summer rainy season over 80 per cent of the region is inundated by water and transformed into an immense swamp.

The Cáceres robber frog (Oreobates heterodactylus) is known only from specimens collected in the 1930s from a small area of western Brazil (Mato Grosso).

The Iberá Wetlands

The Iberá Wetlands (Esteros del Iberá) are a mix of swamps, bogs, stagnant lakes, and water courses located in northeastern Argentina (Corrientes province). It is the second largest wetland area in the world, after the Pantanal of Brazil.

The Iberá seedeater (Sporophila iberaensis) appears to be largely or wholly confined to the Iberá Wetlands, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and collection for the cage bird trade.

Lowland Cerrado Woodlands and Savannas

The cerrado is a vast and biologically rich tropical savanna and woodland region of east-central and south-eastern Brazil, eastern and central Bolivia, and eastern Paraguay. While the core areas are to be found on the Central Plateau of the Brazilian Highlands, it also extends to outlying lowland areas where it is particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction.

The climbing rock cavy (Kerodon acrobata) is a type of rodent known only from a small area of east-central Brazil (Goiás and Tocantins).

The blue-eyed ground dove (Columbina cyanopis) is a very rare species known only from a few records scattered over a wide area of south-central Brazil.

O’Brien’s woodpecker (Celeus obrieni) was long known only from a single specimen collected in north-eastern Brazil (Piauí) in 1926. Long feared extinct, in 2006 another was captured in a mist net in Tocantins state. Since then the species has been recorded from multiple localities in Tocantins and adjacent states, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Minas Gerais tyrannulet (Phylloscartes roquettei) is a type of passerine bird found patchily in eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais, Bahia, and Goías).

Cranwell’s tree iguana (Liolaemus cranwelli) is known only from a single specimen (lacking a tail) collected from central Bolivia (Santa Cruz department) in 1973. No original habitat remains, and the species is most likely extinct.

Bresslau’s bachia (Bachia bresslaui) is a rare type of burrowing lizard found patchily in south-central Brazil (São Paulo, Mato Grosso do Sul, Bahia, and Distrito Federal).

The neglected worm lizard (Amphisbaena neglecta) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1930s from south-central Brazil (Mato Grosso).

Amaral’s green snake (Philodryas livida) is known from south-central Brazil (Mato Grosso do Sul, São Paulo, and Goiás) and eastern Paraguay.

The São Paulo blind snake (Liotyphlops schubarti) is a burrowing species known only from its original collection during the 1940s from two disjunct localities in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). The area has since been heavily transformed by agriculture.

The Chapada dos Guimarães leaf frog (Pithecopus centralis) is known only from a single locality in south-central Brazil (Mato Grosso).

Laura Miriam’s ditch frog (Leptodactylus lauramiriamae) is known only from a single cerrado enclave in south-central Brazil (Rondônia).

Caatinga Scrub

‘Caatinga’ (Tupi for ‘white forest’) is the largest xeric scrub region in South America and one of the richest in the world. Located in the interior of north-eastern and eastern Brazil, the caatingas are characterized by cacti, xeric shrubs and grasses, and small, thorny trees. Many annual plants grow, flower, and die during the brief rainy season.

Viera’s long-tongued bat (Xeronycteris vieirai) is known only from a few localities in north-eastern Brazil (Paraíba, Ceara, Pernambuco, Alagoas, and Bahia).

The white-browed guan (Penelope jacucaca) is still found throughout a wide area of eastern and north-eastern Brazil (Piauí, Paraíba, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia, and Minas Gerais), but has been extirpated in many areas due to hunting and habitat destruction.

The indigo macaw (Anodorhynchus leari) is a very large parrot that had been known to science for a century and a half from trade birds before a wild population was finally discovered in 1978. It is currently known from two colonies at Toca Velha and Serra Branca, south of the Raso da Catarina Plateau in eastern Brazil (north-eastern Bahia). The most recent population estimate is around 1200.

Spix’s macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) is a notably small species. Owing to a long history of habitat destruction and capture for the international pet trade it had, by the end of the twentieth century, been reduced to a last stronghold in eastern Brazil (north-eastern Bahia), and is now likely extinct in the wild. The last confirmed sighting occurred in 2000, although another possible report was made in 2016. There is a small but self-sustaining captive population and future reintroductions are being planned.

Pfrimer’s parakeet (Pyrrhura pfrimeri) is confined to a narrow dry forest belt within an isolated caatinga habitat near the Geral Range in central-eastern Brazil (Goiás and Tocantins). Most of its habitat has already been logged.

The moustached woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes falcirostris) is a rare type of passerine bird found widely but patchily in north-eastern Brazil, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

Vanzolini’s worm lizard (Amphisbaena lumbricalis) is known only from a small area of eastern Brazil (Alagoas and Sergipe).

Novais’ yellow tree frog (Dendropsophus novaisi) is known only from two localities in eastern Brazil (northern Minas Gerais and central Bahia).

The caatinga horned frog (Ceratophrys joazeirensis) is known only from two localities in north-eastern Brazil (Bahia and Paraíba).

The São Francisco Sand Dunes

The São Francisco sand dunes are located on either side of the middle São Francisco River in east-central Brazil (Bahia and Sergipe). While set within a region of caatinga habitat the dunes themselves are quite different, with a number of endemic species.

Yonenaga’s Atlantic spiny rat (Trinomys yonenagae) is a burrowing species that lives in colonies within the dunes, where it is threatened by sand extraction.

The São Francisco spectacled lizard (Psilops paeminosus) is known only from a few localities within the São Francisco sand dunes.

The São Francisco ground lizard (Tropidurus psammonastes) is confined to the São Francisco sand dunes.

The Amathites lava lizard (Eurolophosaurus amathites) is known only from three widely separated localities within the São Francisco sand dunes.

Isolated Caves, Springs, and Pools

Important subterranean systems are located throughout southern Brazil and in parts of Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru.

The Brazilian blind tetra (Stygichthys typhlops) is confined to a few caves in south-eastern Brazil (northern Minas Gerais).

The splendid killifish (Neofundulus splendidus) is known only from a single temporary pool in eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department).

Myer’s killifish (Austrofundulus myersi) is confined to seasonal pools within the floodplain savannas of north-western Colombia, where it is threatened by loss of habitat due to cattle ranching.

The oblique longfin killifish (Moema obliquus) is known only from two localities in north-central Bolivia (Beni and Cochabamba departments), where it is threatened by wetland drainage. The Loreto longfin killifish (M. peruensis) is known only from a single unspecified locality in northern Peru (Loreto department). Claudia’s longfin killifish (M. claudiae) is known only from a single temporary pool in central Bolivia (Beni or Santa Cruz department).

The Quisto Cocha killifish (Anablepsoides speciosus) is known only from a few temporary ponds in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department). It is threatened by habitat degradation and collection for the international aquarium trade.

Boitone’s lyrefin (Simpsonichthys boitonei) is confined to temporary freshwater habitats such as ponds within an undefined area of eastern Brazil (Bahia).

The Santa Catarina sabrefin (Campellolebias brucei) is a type of killifish confined to seasonal blackwater pools in southeastern Brazil (Santa Catarina).

The marbled pearlfish (Leptolebias marmoratus), opalescent pearlfish (L. opalescens), and splendid pearlfish (L. splendens) are all known only from a few ditches, water holes, and temporary ponds in south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro).

The Iténez catfish (Phreatobius sanguijuela) is a leech-like subterranean species known only from a fewwells in north-eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department) and south-western Brazil (Rondônia). It is threatened by pollution and water extraction.

Krone’s pimelodella catfish (Pimelodella kronei) is confined to subterranean cave streams along the Betari River, a tributary of the Ribeira de Iguape River in south-eastern Brazil (Paraná and São Paulo).

The São Domingos Karst Region

The São Domingos karst region is located in east-central Brazil (north-eastern Goiás).

The São Domingos knifefish (Eigenmannia vicentespelaea) is confined to a few caves within the São Domingos karst region.

Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes

The Amazonian Region is of course dominated by the Amazon and Orinoco river drainages with their thousands of tributaries, but there are also many smaller rivers, marshlands, and swamps as well. The number of lakes, by contrast, is not as great. Drainage and reclamation efforts have reduced or eliminated many wetlands, which has adversely affected not only migratory waterfowl but also a great many mammals, passerine birds, and reptiles, in addition to fish.

The pink river dolphin or boto (Inia geoffrensis) is divided into three subspecies that, collectively, can be found throughout the Amazon and Orinoco systems. By the 1970s, however, they had practically disappeared from where they where once ubiquitous due to the industrial use of their skin, which resulted in a tremendous overexploitation by fishermen. Thanks to legal protection the Amazon pink river dolphin (I. g. geoffrensis) once again inhabits most of its former range in Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador, although it continues to be threatened by illegal hunting for use as bait and by fisheries by-catch. The other subspecies will be discussed below.

The giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) is still found throughout the Amazonian Region east of the Andes in the Amazon, Orinoco, and Paraná River drainages as well as in the hydrographic networks of the Guianas. Nevertheless, it has become rare or even non-existent over most of its range, a decline due largely to habitat destruction and the commercial hunting of its fur.

The Colombian eared grebe (Podiceps andinus) was only known from Lake Tota and perhaps a few other lakes in the Colombian Andes. Human-induced changes to the lake along with persistent hunting resulted in a serious decline in the 1950s. The species was last recorded in 1977, and extensive searches in 1981 failed to locate it.

The Brazilian merganser (Mergus octosetaceus) is a type of diving duck and one of the world’s most threatened species of waterfowl. At one time widespread across much of South America, it is now confined to a few disjunct localities in east-central and south-central Brazil, north-eastern Argentina, and possibly Paraguay. The total wild population may be less than 250, with a small number in captivity.

The Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) is almost gone in Venezuela and Colombia, its last refuge, after having become eliminated from the Amazon River drainage and in most of the Orinoco drainage as a result of excessive hunting for hides. From the 1940s to the 1960s thousands were slaughtered in the Orinoco River and in the llanos wetlands and the species came very close to extinction. It was given protected status in the 1970s, but has yet to recover. Additional threats include dam construction, overcollection for use as pets, and competition with the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus).

South American river turtles of the genus Podocnemis are notably large, aquatic turtles that are found throughout the Amazon, Orinoco, and Essequibo river systems. Historically so numerous that, in certain seasons, they were said to impede the passage of canoes and smaller boats, during the 1650s it was said that people living in the region where they occurred ‘never knew what hunger was’. This tremendous primary food resource was long the basis of the economy along the river. The exploitation concentrated chiefly on the eggs, although the turtles themselves were hunted for meat and oil. The oil was used for lighting and as an edible fat. Without any consideration for the future of the animals, eggs were collected in heaps more than 6 m high. The reckless exploitation, combined with destruction of the shores where this turtle nested, caused such a decline in its numbers that by the middle of the nineteenth century they had become rare all over their original range. Commercial harvesting only intensified during the twentieth century, reducing the nesting sites to just a few remote areas, and many species were driven close to extinction. Fortunately, since then they have been better protected and their numbers have begun to increase once more. The elongated Amazon river turtle (P. expansa) is now once again widespread and common in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela, and on Trinidad and Tobago after centuries of exploitation, but is still conservation-dependant. The six-tubercled Amazon river turtle (P. sextuberculata) lives in Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. The red-headed Amazon river turtle (P. erythrocephala) lives in Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela. The yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle (P. unifilis) was at one time reduced to Colombia, but is now found once again in Bolivia, northern Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.

The big-headed Amazon river turtle (Peltocephalus dumerilianus) is found over a wide area of north-western Brazil (Amazonas and Pará), Colombia, French Guiana, Venezuela, Ecuador, and possibly Peru, but remains vulnerable to overcollection.

The Brazilian snake-necked turtle (Hydromedusa maximiliani) is found patchily in mountain streams in eastern and south-eastern Brazil (Bahia, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo), where it is threatened by loss of habitat and pollution.

Hoge’s toad-headed turtle (Mesoclemmys hogei) has been reduced to a few isolated populations in the Paríaba and Itapemirim river drainages of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, and Minas Gerais). Dahl’s toad-headed turtle (M. dahli) is known only from the lower Magdalena and Sinú river drainages of northern Colombia (Atlántico, Bolívar, Córdoba, and Sucre departments). The Zulia toad-headed turtle (M. zuliae) is confined to a small area of north-western Venezuela (Zulia state). All are seriously threatened by loss of habitat.

Dunn’s mud turtle (Kinosternon dunni) is a little-known species endemic to an undefined area in Colombia.

Carvalho’s slider (Trachemys adiutrix) is confined to north-eastern Brazil (Maranhão and Piauí).

The warty water frog (Telmatobius verrucosus) is confined to streams within a small area of central-western Bolivia (La Paz department). Hinton’s water frog (T. hintoni) is found in south-central Bolivia (Cochabamba, Potosí, and Oruro departments). Both have undergone significant declines due to chytridiomycosis and habitat degradation.

Ari’s aquatic caecilian (Chthonerpeton arii) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Brazil (Ceará). The Sitio aquatic caecilian (C. noctinectes) is known only from a single locality in coastal eastern Brazil (Bahia). The Pandeiros aquatic caecilian (C. perissodus) is known only from three specimens collected from a single locality in eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais).

Three species of river stingray (Potamotrygon) are threatened by habitat degradation, fishing, and collection for the international aquarium trade. Yepez’s river stingray (P. yepezi) is confined to the Catacumbo and Maracaibo drainages of north-western Venezuela. Marina’s river stingray (P. marinae) is known only from the Oyapock and Maroni rivers in French Guiana, Suriname, and northern Brazil (Amapá). Schroeder’s river stingray (P. schroederi) is relatively widespread within the Negro and Orinoco river drainages of Colombia, Venezuela, and north-western Brazil.

Kennedy’s tetra (Astyanax kennedyi) is known only from an unspecified locality near the city of Iquitos, in northern Peru (Loreto department).

The Santander characin (Hemibrycon virolinica) is known only from a few creeks and rivers in northern Colombia (Santander department).

The Guamural characin (Bryconamericus icelus) is known only from its original collection from a ravine in northwestern Colombia (Córdoba department).

Two pupfish of the genus Orestias endemic to the Peruvian Andes, where they are threatened by pollution and introduced fish species. The Junín orestias (O. polonorum) is confined to Lake Junín and Lake Aguascancha (Junín and Pasco departments). The Huallaga orestias (O. gymnotus) is confined to two creeks within the Huallaga River drainage and to Lake Aguascancha (Pasco department).

The Allcuquiro killifish (Anablepsoides monticola) is known only from a single montane forest brook in southcentral Ecuador (Morona Santiago province).

The bar-tailed pearlfish (Notholebias minimus) is confined to coastal river drainages in south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro).

Several species of naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus) are threatened by habitat destruction, pollution, and overfishing. Regan’s naked suckermouth catfish (A. regani) is confined to a small area of north-western Ecuador (Carchi and Imbabura provinces). Ubidia’s naked suckermouth catfish (A. ubidiai) is found widely but patchily in the Ecuadorian Andes. Pearson’s naked suckermouth catfish (A. supramollis) is found widely but patchily in the Andes of southern Ecuador and north-western Peru. Vaillant’s naked suckermouth catfish (A. vaillanti) is known only from a single undefined locality in north-central Ecuador.

Branick’s bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma branickii) is confined to a few localities in north-western Peru.

Campos’ pencil catfish (Listrura camposi) is known only from a small area of coastal south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo and Santa Catarina). Several expeditions in recent years have failed to locate it.

The Cruz Verde pencil catfish (Trichomycterus venulosus) is known only from two specimens collected from the Páramo de Cruz Verde in west-central Colombia (Cundinamarca department). Last recorded in 1911, it is most likely extinct.

Lake Junín

Lake Junín (Lago Junín in Spanish) is located high in the Andes of central Peru (Junín and Pasco departments). It is fairly shallow and surrounded by extensive reed marshes.

The Junín flightless grebe (Podiceps taczanowskii) was described as ‘extremely abundant’ in 1938, but by the 1980s there were only around 250 left, mostly confined to the southern end of the lake. The population has fluctuated slightly up and down ever since.

The Junín crake (Laterallus tuerosi) is a type of rail confined to reed marshes surrounding the lake, where it is thought to be declining.

Two species of semi-aquatic water frog (Telmatobius) are endemic to the Lake Junín basin, where they are threatened by harvesting for food by local people. The short-digit water frog (T. brachydactylus) is confined to small tributaries of Lake Junín. The large-mouthed water frog (T. macrostomus) is found in Lake Junín and a few smaller, isolated marshy lakes.

The Amazon River Drainage

The Amazon River (Rio Amazonas in Portuguese) is generally regarded as the second longest in the world (after the Nile), stretching as it does at least 6400 km from the Andes to the Atlantic. By some definitions it may even be the longest. It is without question the largest by volume, containing 20 per cent of the Earth’s fresh water. The Amazon has over 1000 tributaries, many of which are major river systems in their own right. Taken together, they possess the greatest abundance of freshwater fishes in the world and provide habitat for countless amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals as well.

The Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis) is the smallest of the manatees and the only sirenian to live exclusively in freshwater. It is still found patchily throughout much of the Amazon River drainage from Marajó Island in coastal Brazil through to Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador. Long hunted for its meat, it was historically harvested for its oil and skin as well, and it is estimated that approximately 140,000 were killed for the latter reasons between 1935 and 1954. In 1977 the total population was estimated at around 10,000, but has likely decreased since.

The Amazon grey river dolphin or tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis) occurs throughout the Amazon River system but is everywhere threatened by hunting for use as fish bait, fisheries bycatch, and pollution.

The black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) is a large crocodilian that was at one time in great danger of vanishing completely across its very wide range within the Amazon River drainage. Excessive exploitation for hides and human consumption were the primary reasons, but the species has since recovered thanks to strict regulations. While no longer thought to be threatened, it remains conservation-dependent.

Arapaimas (Arapaima) are among the world’s largest freshwater fish. Until recently only a single species was recognized, which was widespread in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, and Peru. It has now been split into at least five species, and may represent even more. Virtually nothing is known about the slender arapaima (A. leptosoma), Schinz’s arapaima (A. gigas), Valenciennes’ arapaima (A. arapaima), Agassiz’s arapaima (A. agassizii), and the Mapa arapaima (A. mapae), but all are non-migratory and vulnerable to overfishing.

Several species of dwarf cichlid (Apistogramma) have small ranges and are therefore particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction and degradation. The cocha dwarf cichlid (A. cinilabra) is known only from a single small, isolated pond in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department). The Nuevo Horizonte dwarf cichlid (A. norberti) is known only from a single forest brook within the Tahuayo River drainage in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department). The Huascar dwarf cichlid (A. huascar) and the Atahualpa dwarf cichlid (A. atahualpa) are both known only from aquarium specimens that likely originated somewhere in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department). Paul Mueller’s dwarf cichlid (A. paulmuelleri) is known only from an unspecified tributary of the Amazon located approximately 80 km south of Iquitos, in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department).

The Uruhuasi bristlenose catfish (Ancistrus heterorhynchus) is known only from a single locality in south-eastern Peru (Puno or Cusco department). Cope’s bristlenose catfish (A. variolus) is known only from the Ambyiacu River in northeastern Peru (Loreto department).

Günther’s catfish (Rhadinoloricaria macromystax) is known only from its original collection during the midnineteenth century from an unspecified locality in northeastern Peru (Loreto department).

The Samiria banjo catfish (Pseudobunocephalus quadriradiatus) is known only from a small area of north-central Peru (Loreto department).

The Cashiboya catfish (Loricariichthys cashibo) is known only from Lake Cashiboya in north-central Peru (Loreto department).

Taczanowski’s pencil catfish (Trichomycterus taczanowskii) is known only from the Huambo and Tortora rivers in north-western Peru.

The Pebas pimelodella catfish (Pimelodella cyanostigma) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department).

The Marañón River

The Marañón River (Río Marañón in Spanish) originates in the Andes of northern Peru and is the principal source of the mainstream Amazon River.

The Marañón dwarf cichlid (Apistogramma rositae) is known only from the Marañon River drainage between the Pastaza and Tigre tributaries, opposite the mouth of the Huallaga River (Loreto department).

Géry’s characin (Tyttobrycon hamatus) is known only from an unspecified tributary of the Marañon River near Iquitos, in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department).

The Marañón naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus labialis) is known from two localities in the Andes of northern Peru.

The Tingo de Pauca three-barbelled catfish (Chasmocranus quadrizonatus) is known only from a single locality in northwestern Peru (Cajamarca department). The Puerto Melendez three-barbelled catfish (C. peruanus) is known only from a single locality in north-western Peru (Loreto department).

The Nauta pimelodella catfish (Pimelodella ophthalmica) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department).

The Pastaza River (Río Pastaza in Spanish) is a large tributary of the Marañón River. It originates from Cotapaxi Volcano in north-central Ecuador and flows east before turning south in north-central Peru.

Coxey’s tetra (Brycon coxeyi) is known only from a single locality at the headwaters of the Pastaza River.

The Crisnejas River (Río Crisnejas in Spanish) is located in the Andes of north-western Peru.

The Crisnejas characin (Moenkhausia crisnejas) is known only from the Crisnejas River.

The Pusoc River (Río Pusoc in Spanish) is located in the Andes of north-western Peru.

The Pusoc characin (Microgenys lativirgata) is known only from the Pusoc River.

The Nieva River (Río Nieva in Spanish) is located in northwestern Peru.

The Nieva driftwood catfish (Gelanoglanis travieso) is known only from the Nieva River, where it appears to be threatened by overfishing and pollution.

The Huallaga River (Río Huallaga in Spanish) arises on the slopes of the Andes in central Peru and joins the Marañón before the latter reaches the Ucayali River to form the Amazon.

The Moyabamba tetra (Astyanax longior) is known only from a single locality within the Huallaga River.

The Huallaga pimelodella catfish (Pimelodella montana) is known only from a small area of central-western Peru (Huánuco department).

The dappled bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma daidalmatos), marbled bristlemouth catfish (C. marmorescens), Puerto Nuevo bristlemouth catfish (C. changae), and Salcedo’s bristlemouth catfish (C. stroumpoulos) are all confined to a small area within the upper Huallaga drainage of central Peru (Huánuco department). They are threatened by dam construction and pollution.

The Santiago River (Río Santiago in Spanish) is located in south-eastern Ecuador (Pastaza province) and north-western Peru (Amazonas department).

The Zamora pencil catfish (Trichomycterus bomboizanus) is known only from the Bomboiza and Gualaquiza rivers within the Santiago River drainage of south-eastern Ecuador.

The Bomboiza bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma breve) is known only from the Bomboiza River.

The Bomboiza suckermouth armoured catfish (Cordylancistrus platycephalus) is known only from the Bomboiza River, a tributary of the Santiago River located in south-eastern Ecuador.

The Tigre River (Río Tigre in Spanish) is located on the plains of Peru and Ecuador. It forms from the confluence of the Ecuadorian rivers Cunambo and Pintoyacu at the Peruvian border.

The Danta cichlid (Bujurquina pardus) is known only from a single locality in the Danta River, in the Tigre River drainage of Ecuador.

The Tigre corydoras catfish (Corydoras atropersonatus) is known from a few localities within the Tigre River drainage, where it is threatened by pollution and collection for the international aquarium trade.

The Nucuray River (Río Nucuray in Spanish) is located in north-central Peru (Loreto department).

The Nucuray anostomus (Anostomus longus) is known only from the Nucuray River.

The Ucayali River

The Ucayali River (Río Ucayali in Spanish) is a major tributary of the Amazon. It arises about 110 km north of Lake Titicaca in southern Peru and flows generally north.

The robust cichlid (Bujurquina robusta) is a rare species known only from a few river localities and oxbow lakes within the Ucayali River drainage. It is collected for use as an ornamental fish.

The Sierra del Divisor characin (Hemibrycon divisorensis) is known only from the right margin of the Ucayali River drainage in Peru.

Wischmann’s longfin (Aphyolebias wischmanni) is a type of killifish known only from a backwater of the Chipiria and Amaquiria rivers, in the Ucayali drainage of central Peru.

The Contamana catfish (Loricariichthys chanjoo) is known only from a single locality in the Ucayali River drainage of north-central Peru.

Hartwell’s pimelodella catfish (Pimelodella hartwelli) and the Inahuaya pimelodella catfish (P. peruana) are both known only from a small area within the Ucayali River drainage of north-central Peru (Loreto department).

Eigenmann’s three-barbelled catfish (Rhamdella montana) is confined to a single brook in the Andes of southcentral Peru, where it is threatened by pollution from agrochemicals.

The San Ramón three-barbelled catfish (Cetopsorhamdia filamentosa) is known only from a single locality in the Chanchamayo Valley of central Peru.

The zebra oto catfish (Otocinclus cocama) is currently known only from Yanayacu Creek, a tributary of the Ucayali River in north-eastern Peru (Loreto department), although it may be more widespread within the lower Ucayali and Marañon drainages. It is threatened by overcollection for the international aquarium trade.

Fowler’s pencil catfish (Trichomycterus taeniops) and Weyrauch’s pencil catfish (T. weyrauchi) are both only from a single locality in south-central Peru (Junín department).

Jelski’s bristlenose catfish (Ancistrus jelskii) is known only from a small area of south-central Peru (Junín department).

The Ucayali bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma loborhynchos) is known only from the Tulumayo and Paucartambo rivers in the upper Ucayali River drainage of central Peru.

The Acobamba naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus formosus) is known only from a single locality in south-central Peru (Junín department). The Ninabamba Cave naked suckermouth catfish (A. riberae) is known only from Ninabamba Cave, within the Reque River drainage of north-western Peru (Cajamarca department). Manco’s naked suckermouth catfish (A. mancoi) is known only from the Comberciato River in south--central Peru (Cusco department). The Amable María naked suckermouth catfish (A. peruanus) and Taczanowski’s naked suckermouth catfish (A. taczanowskii) are both known only from a small area of south-central Peru (Junín department).

The Apurimac River (Río Apurimac in Spanish) is located in south-central Peru (Ayacucho department).

Weyrauch’s characin (Microgenys weyrauchi) is known only from a single locality within the Apurimac River drainage.

The San Alejandro River (Río San Alejandro in Spanish) is located in central Peru (Ucayali department).

The San Alejandro catfish (Panaqolus albivermis) is known only from the San Alejandro River, where it is threatened by overcollection for the international aquarium trade.

The Huacamayo River (Río Huacamayo in Spanish) is located in central Peru (Ucayali department).

The Aguatíya armoured catfish (Aposturisoma myriodon) is confined to the Aguatiya River in the Huacamayo River drainage.

The Pachitea River (Río Pachitea in Spanish) is located in central Peru (Huánuco department).

The Pachitea cichlid (Tahuantinsuyoa chipi) is known only from a few rivers and streams in the Pachitea River drainage.

The Copal River (Río Copal in Spanish) is located in northeastern Peru (Loreto department).

Nijssen’s dwarf cichlid (Apistogramma nijsseni) is known only from the Quebrada Carahuayte, a small blackwater stream in the Copal River drainage.

The Napo River

The Napo River (Río Napo in Spanish) rises in the Andes of Ecuador and eventually joins the Amazon River in Peru.

The Napo characin (Knodus delta) is confined to a single creek within the upper Napo River drainage.

Boulenger’s naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus boulengeri) is confined to the Napo-Pastaza drainage in eastern Ecuador.

The Payamino River (Río Payamino in Spanish) is located in north-eastern Ecuador (Orellana province).

The Payamino dwarf cichlid (Apistogramma payaminonis) is known only from the Payamino River.

The Putumayo River

The Putumayo or Içá River (Río Putumayo in Spanish/Rio Içá in Portuguese) is located in western Brazil (Amazonas), Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.

The Amaron tetra (Hyphessobrycon amaronensis) is known only from a few creeks and rivers within a small area of southern Colombia (Putumayo department).

The Caquetá–Japurá River

The Caquetá–Japurá River (Río Caquetá in Spanish/Rio Japurá in Portuguese) rises in the Andes of south-western Colombia and flows eastward through north-western Brazil before finally joining the Amazon River.

The Morelia killifish (Anablepsoides taeniatus) is known only from the upper Caquetá River drainage of south-western Colombia, where it was last collected during the 1940s.

The alternating-striped bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma alternifasciatum) and the wandering bristlemouth catfish (C. vagum) are each known only from a small area of south-western Colombia (Caquetá department).

The slender armoured catfish (Farlowella gracilis) is known only from a few localities in south-western Colombia (Caquetá department).

The Caquetá armoured catfish (Sturisoma caquetae) is known only from its original collection during the 1940s from the upper Caquetá River drainage of south-western Colombia.

The Morelia driftwood catfish (Centromochlus altae) is known only from the upper Caquetá River drainage of south-western Colombia.

The Caquetá whiptail catfish (Spatuloricaria euacanthagenys) is known only from the upper Caquetá River drainage of south-western Colombia.

The Orteguasa River (Río Orteguasa in Spanish) is located in south-western Colombia (Caquetá department).

The Orteguasa bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma lineolatus) is known only from its original collection during the 1940s from the Orteguasa River.

Reynolds’ corydoras catfish (Corydoras reynoldsi) is known only from a tributary of the Orteguasa River.

The Orteguasa whiptail catfish (Spatuloricaria caquetae) is confined to the Orteguasa River.

The Apaporis River (Río Apaporis in Spanish) is located in south-eastern Colombia (Vaupés department).

The Apaporis spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis) is known only from the middle Apaporis River drainage.

The Nanay River

The Nanay River (Río Nanay in Spanish) is located in the lowlands of north-eastern Peru (Loreto department).

The Nanay river stingray (Potamotrygon tigrina) is known only from the Nanay River, but may also occur in the Tigre and Putumayo rivers. It is threatened by overcollection for the international aquarium trade.

The Nanay dwarf cichlid (Apistogramma pantalone) is known only from the upper Nanay River.

The ornate characin (Trochilocharax ornatus) is known only from a single imported specimen originating from the city of Iquitos. It was likely collected from either the Nanay River or its tributary, the Ampiyacu River.

The coral red pencilfish (Nannostomus mortenthaleri) is known only from a single small tributary of the Nanay River, where it is seriously threatened by overcollection for the international aquarium trade.

The Itaya River (Río Itaya in Spanish) is a small tributary of the Nanay River.

The Itaya killifish (Laimosemion rectocaudatus) is known only from the Itaya River.

The Ampiyacu River (Río Ampiyacu in Spanish) is a small tributary of the Nanay River.

The Ampiyacu armoured catfish (Hypoptopoma bilobatum) is known only from its original collection during the late nineteenth century.

The Madeira River

The Madeira River (Río Madeira in Spanish / Rio Madeira in Portuguese) is the largest tributary of the Amazon River, running through much of Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil.

The Madre de Dios River (Río Madre de Dios in Spanish) is located in south-eastern Peru (Madre de Dios department) and north-western Bolivia (Pando and La Paz departments).

The Madre de Dios dwarf cichlid (Apistogramma rubrolineata) is known only from three localities within the Madre de Dios drainage, two of which are in protected areas.

The Inambari characin (Attonitus bounites) is known only from the Inambari River, a tributary of the Madre de Dios River in south-eastern Peru.

Elias’ characin (Chrysobrycon eliasi) is known only from the Madre de Dios River drainage in south-eastern Peru.

The Morado tetra (Hyphessobrycon nigricinctus) is known only from the Madre de Dios River in south-eastern Peru.

Parlette’s killifish (Anablepsoides parlettei) is known only from a single small stream in south-eastern Peru (Cuzco department). The bar-striped killifish (A. lineasoppilatae) is known only from two localities (a small stream and a small pool) within the Madre de Dios drainage of south-eastern Peru (a small stream and a small pool). Both are seriously threatened by potential mining activities and/or dam construction.

The Inambari bristlenose catfish (Ancistrus marcapatae) is known only from the Inambari River, a tributary of the Madre de Dios River in south-eastern Peru.

The Beni River (Río Beni in Spanish) is located in northwestern Bolivia (La Paz and Beni departments).

The Warinilla characin (Knodus longus) is known only from the Warinilla (or Huarinilla) River, a tributary of the Beni River.

Pearson’s characin (Bryconacidnus hemigrammus) is known only from the Popoi River, in the upper Beni River drainage.

The Beni bristlenose catfish (Ancistrus bolivianus) is known only from a single locality within the Beni River drainage.

Rusby’s three-barbelled catfish (Rhamdella rusbyi) is known only from the upper Beni River drainage.

The Coroico armoured catfish (Farlowella altocorpus) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Beni River drainage.

The Mamoré River (Río Mamoré in Spanish; Rio Mamoré in Portuguese) is located in north-central Bolivia and western Brazil. It unites with the Beni River to form the Madeira River, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon.

The Bolivian pink river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis boliviensis) is confined to a few populations within the Mamoré River and its main tributary, the Iténez River, upstream of the rapids of Teotonio in Bolivia.

Pillet’s killifish (Spectrolebias pilleti) and Brousseau’s killifish (S. brousseaui) are each known only from a single temporary pool within the Mamoré River drainage of eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department). The San Pablo killifish (S. filamentosus) is known only from a single swamp in northern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department). All are potentially threatened by habitat destruction and pollution.

The Matos catfish (Stenolicmus sarmientoi) is known only from four specimens collected from the Matos River, a small tributary of the Mamoré River located in north-western Bolivia (Beni department).

The two-lined corydoras catfish (Corydoras bilineatus) is known only from a single locality in north-central Bolivia (Santa Cruz department). The Ibare corydoras catfish (C. mamore) is known only from the Ibare River, a tributary of the Mamoré River in north-central Bolivia (Beni department).

The Mamoré armoured catfish (Pseudohemiodon thorectes) is known only from a few scattered localities within the Mamoré river drainage.

The Chapare River is located in central Bolivia (Cochabamba department), within the upper Mamoré River drainage.

The Chapare tetra (Astyanax chaparae) is known only from a single locality within the Chapare River.

The Shinahota characin (Knodus shinahota) is known only from the Shinahota River, a tributary of the Chapare River. It is highly threatened by loss of habitat.

Schindler’s characin (Oligosarcus schindleri) is known only from three localities within the Grande and Isiboro rivers, upper tributaries of the Chapare River.

The Chapare pimelodella catfish (Pimelodella chaparae) is known only from the Chapare River drainage.

The Guaporé River (Río Guaporé in Spanish; also known as the Iténez River in Bolivia) is located in southern Brazil and northern Bolivia.

The Ipurupuru darter (Characidium heinianum) is known only from the Ipurupuru River, a tributary of the Guaporé River located in north-central Bolivia (Beni department).

The Ipurupuru characin (Moenkhausia dorsinuda) is known only from the Ipurupuru River.

Noel Kempff’s corydoras catfish (Corydoras noelkempffi), the white-lined corydoras catfish (C. albolineatus), the Paraguá corydoras catfish (C. paragua), and the Paucerna corydoras catfish (C. paucerna) are all known only from the Paraguá River, a tributary of the Guaporé River located in north-eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department). Isbruecker’s corydoras catfish (C. isbrueckeri) is confined to a single small stream (a tributary of the Paraguá River). All are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.

The Lower Amazon River

The lower Amazon is here defined as the course and tributaries located below the Madeira River and extending to the Amazon River delta.

The Xingu River (Rio Xingu in Portuguese) is a southern tributary of the Lower Amazon located in central Brazil. Tributaries include the Culuene, Curuá, Iriri, and Pardo rivers.

The Xingu river stingray (Potamotrygon leopoldi) is confined to the Xingu River and two of its tributaries (the Curuá and Iriri rivers).

The slender pike cichlid (Teleocichla centisquama) is known for certain only from a single area of the Xingu River, but may occur more widely.

The Amazon Delta

The Amazon delta (delta do Amazonas in Portuguese) is a huge river delta formed by the Amazon and Tocantins rivers in north-eastern Brazil (Pará and Amapá).

The ocellated river stingray (Potamotrygon ocellata) is confined to the Amazon delta.

The Orinoco River Drainage

The Orinoco River (Río Orinoco in Spanish) is one of the longest rivers in South America and the fourth largest in the world by volume of discharge. Its drainage basin is located mainly in Venezuela, with the remainder in Colombia.

The Orinoco pink river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis humboldtiana) occurs within theOrinoco drainage including the Apure and Meta rivers where it is confined, at least during the dry season, to the waterfalls of the Negro River rapids and the Casiquiare Canal.

The Orinoco darter (Melanocharacidium melanopteron) is known from a few tributaries in eastern Venezuela, where it may be threatened by damming.

The Tocantins River

The Tocantins River (Rio Tocantins in Portuguese) is located in central-eastern Brazil (Goiás, Tocantins, Maranhão and Pará). It is one of the largest clearwater rivers in South America.

The Tocantins darter (Characidium stigmosum) is possibly confined to a few tributaries of the upper Tocantins River in Goiás state.

The Magdalena River

The Magdalena River (Río Magdalena in Spanish) is the principal river of Colombia. It flows northwards about 1500 km through the western half of the country from the Andes in the south to the Caribbean Sea.

Moore’s tetra (Brycon moorei) is widespread within the Magdalena–Cauca drainage, but is everywhere threatened by overfishing.

Gislen’s tetra (Astyanax gisleni) is a little-known species confined to the Magdalena River drainage of north-western Colombia.

The Tolima characin (Bryconamericus tolimae) is known from a few localities within the upper Magdalena River drainage of west-central Colombia.

Steindachner’s characin (Ichthyoelephas longirostris) is found throughout the Magdalena–Cauca drainage, but is almost everywhere threatened by overfishing and habitat destruction.

The anomalous characin (Acestrocephalus anomalus) is known only from a few specimens collected from the middle and lower Magdalena–Cauca drainage.

The Pechilín characin (Creagrutus nigrostigmatus) is known only from a single small stream draining into the Caribbean Sea in north-western Colombia (Sucre department), within the Magdalena River drainage.

The Santa Marta characin (Hemibrycon santamartae) is known only from two disjunct localities within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia (La Guajira and Magdalena departments).

The Digue de Cartagena characin (Argopleura conventus) is known only from a single specimen collected during the early twentieth century from north-western Colombia (Cartagena department).

The Magdalena long-whiskered catfish (Pimelodus grosskopfii) remains widespread within the Magdalena–Cauca drainage but has been greatly reduced by overfishing.

The Magdalena sorubim catfish (Pseudoplatystoma magdaleniatum) is an important commercial food fish still found throughout the Magdalena–Cauca drainage, but in much reduced numbers.

Fabricio’s armoured catfish (Callichthys fabricioi) is known only from a few localities within the Magdalena– Cauca drainage of south-western Colombia, where it is threatened by pollution and sedimentation.

The marbled naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus marmoratus) is known only from a single locality within the upper Magdalena River drainage of south-western Colombia (Caquetá department). The widetooth naked suckermouth catfish (A. latidens) is known from a few localities in northcentral Colombia.

Romero’s pencil catfish (Trichomycterus romeroi) is known only from a single locality within the Magdalena River drainage of west-central Colombia (Tolima department).

The Cueva La Pichonera pencil catfish (T. straminius) is known only from a small area of central Colombia (Cundinamarca department). The Combeima pencil catfish (T. transandianus) is known from a few localities in westcentral Colombia.

The Páez River

The Páez River (Río Páez in Spanish) is located within the upper Magdalena River drainage of south-western Colombia.

The Páez characin (Hemibrycon paez) is known only from the Páez River drainage.

The Guarapas River

The Guarapas River (Río Guarapas in Spanish) is located in south-western Colombia (Huila department), within the upper Magdalena River drainage.

The La Quebradona three-barbelled catfish (Imparfinis timana) is known only from La Quebradona creek, a small tributary of the Guarapas River.

The Pardo River

The Pardo River (Río Pardo in Spanish) is located within the upper Magdalena River drainage of west-central Colombia (Tolima department).

The Pardo bristlenose catfish (Ancistrus tolima) is known only from the Pardo River.

The Cauca River

The Cauca River (Río Cauca in Spanish) is located in western Colombia between the Cordillera Occidental and Central.

The Cauca tetra (Brycon labiatus) is known for certain only from two disjunct localities within the Cauca River drainage.

The tarpon characin (Genycharax tarpon) is known only from a few localities within the upper Cauca River drainage.

The Cali Priapis fish (Priapichthys caliensis) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Cauca River drainage.

The Medellín bristlemouth catfish (Chaetostoma aburrensis) is known only from a now-lost type specimen collected from an inprecise locality within the Cauca River drainage during the early twentieth century.

The Cauca bristlenose catfish (Ancistrus vericaucanus) is known only from three localities within the upper tributaries of the Cauca River.

The Cauca pimelodella catfish (Pimelodella macrocephala) is confined to a few localities within the upper Cauca River drainage.

The Risaralda River (Río Risaralda in Spanish) is located in the upper Cauca River drainage (Caldas department).

The Risaralda characin (Hemibrycon cairoense) is known only from Los Ramirez and Italica creeks, small tributaries of the Risaralda River.

The Quindío River (Río Quindio in Spanish) is located in the upper Cauca River drainage (Quindío department).

Two species of characin (Hemibrycon) are confined to small tributaries of the Quindío River. The Tinaja characin (H. quindos) is known only from Tinaja Creek, while the La Vernada characin (H. brevispini) is known only from La Vernada Creek.

The San Jorge River (Río San Jorge in Spanish) is a tributary of the Cauca River located in north-western Colombia (Antioch, Córdoba, Bolívar, and Sucre departments).

The Batatal characin (Gephyrocharax martae) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Batatal River, a tributary of the San Jorge River, in the 1940s.

The Chanco River (Río Chanco in Spanish) is a tributary of the Cauca River located in west-central Colombia (Valle del Cauca department).

Miles’ knifefish (Apteronotus milesi) is known only from the Chanco River.

The Suárez River

The Suárez River (Río Suárez in Spanish) is located within the middle Magdalena River drainage of northern Colombia (Cundinamarca, Boyacá, and Santander departments).

The many-scaled characin (Bryconamericus arilepis) is known only from Fonce River and Pontesuela Creek, tributaries of the Suárez River (Santander department). The Suárez characin (B. foncensis) is confined to the Suárez River drainage (Santander department).

The Saldaña River

The Saldaña River (Río Saldaña in Spanish) is located within the middle Magdalena River drainage.

The Hitico River (Río Hitico in Spanish) is a tributary of the Saldaña River located in Cundinamarca department.

The Hitico characin (Hemibrycon yacopiae) is known only from the Hitico River.

The La Miel River

The La Miel River (Río La Miel in Spanish) is located in western Colombia (Caldas department).

The La Miel characin (Hemibrycon raqueliae) is confined to creeks within the La Miel River drainage.

The La Miel killifish (Cynodonichthys boehlkei) is known only from temporary streams and pools within the La Miel River drainage.

The Oro River

The Oro River (Río Oro in Spanish) is located in the middle Magdalena River drainage (Santandar department).

The Oro banded knifefish (Gymnotus ardilai) is known only from the Oro River.

The La Colorada River

The La Colorada River (Río La Colorada in Spanish) is located in the middle Magdalena River drainage (Santandar department).

The Cascajales River (Río Cascajales in Spanish) is a small tributary of the La Colorada River in the Serranía de los Yariguíes.

The Cascajales characin (Astyanacinus yariguies) is known only from the Cascajales River.

The Topon River

The Topon River (Río Topon in Spanish) is located in northwestern Colombia (Santander department).

The Yarigíes armoured catfish (Farlowella yarigui) is known only from the Topon River.

The Calenturitas River

The Calenturitas River (Río Calenturitas in Spanish) is located in the lower Magdalena River drainage in northwestern Colombia.

The Tucuy River (Río Tucay in Spanish) is a tributary of the Calenturitas River.

Alfonso’s scrapetooth (Parodon alfonsoi) is known only from the Tucuy River.

The Cáchira River

The Cáchira River (Río Cáchira in Spanish) is located within the lower Magdalena River drainage of north-western Colombia (Norte de Santander department).

The Cáchira naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus cacharas) is known only from a small tributary of the Cáchira River.

The Essequibo River

The Essequibo River (Río Essequibo in Spanish) is the largest river in Guyana and the largest between the Orinoco and the Amazon. It rises in the Acarai Mountains near the Brazil– Guyana border, and flows north for 1000 km through forest and savanna to the Atlantic Ocean.

The Essequibo pimelodella catfish (Pimelodella altipinnis) is known only from the Essequibo River drainage in Guyana.

The São Francisco River

The São Francisco River (Rio São Francisco in Portuguese) is the longest river running entirely in Brazil, and the fourth longest in South America. It arises in the Canastra Mountains of central-western Minas Gerais and runs north and east to the Atlantic.

The São Francisco tetra (Brycon orthotaenia) is confined to the lower São Francisco River above the Sobradinho Dam.

The São Francisco killifish (Simpsonichthys picturatus) is known only from an unspecified locality in the São Francisco River.

The Paraná River

The Paraná River (Río Paraná in Spanish / Rio Paraná in Portuguese) is second in length only to the Amazon River in South America. It is formed at the confluence of the Paranaiba and Rio Grande rivers in southern Brazil, and runs through Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina for some 4900 km. Merging first with the Paraguay River and then, further downstream, with the Uruguay River, it eventually forms the La Plata River and empties into the Atlantic.

The Paraguay River (Río Paraguay in Spanish; Rio Paraguai in Portuguese) is a major river in south-central South America. It flows about 2695 km from its headwaters in Brazil (Mato Grosso) to its confluence with the Paraná River.

The Pantanal corydoras catfish (Corydoras pantanalensis) is confined to the Las Petas River, a tributary of the Paraguay River in eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz department). It may also occur in the Miranda River in southern Brazil (Mato Grosso do Sul).

The Mogi-Guaçu River (Rio Mogi-Guaçu in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

The Mogi-Guaçu tetra (Astyanax trierythropterus) is only known from the Mogi-Guacu River.

The Tietê River (Rio Tietê in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

The Tietê armoured catfish (Pseudotocinclus tietensis) is known only from a few unprotected localities in the headwaters of the Tietê River.

The Uruguay River

The Uruguay River (Río Uruguay in Spanish/Rio Uruguay in Portuguese) rises on the Sea Ridge Range of south-eastern Brazil and flows south through Uruguay and Argentina before finally emptying into the Plate River estuary.

The Uruguay River pike cichlid (Crenicichla prenda) is confined to the upper Uruguay River drainage in southeastern Brazil.

The Uruguay River pearlfish (Austrolebias affinis) is confined to the Uruguay River drainage, where it is threatened by habitat degradation and pollution.

Miscellaneous Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes

Lake Tota (Lago de Tota in Spanish) is located high in the Cordillera Oriental of north-central Colombia (Boycayá department).

The Tota catfish (Rhizosomichthys totae) is known only from two collections (in 1942 and 1958) from Lake Tota. It has not been recorded since, and is most likely extinct due to pollution and the introduction of exotic fish species.

The Sinú River (Río Sinú in Spanish) is located in northwestern Colombia. Martinez’s naked suckermouth catfish (Astroblepus martinezi) is known only from a small tributary of the Tay River, in the upper Sinú River drainage.

The Jequetepeque River (Río Jequetepeque in Spanish) is located in northern Peru. The Jequetepeque catfish (Rhamdia xetequepeque) is confined to a small area of the Jequetepeque River, where it is threatened by habitat degradation.

The Urubamba/Vilcanota River is located in Peru. Yanatil’s characin (Creagrutus yanatili) is known only from the Urubamba/Vilcanota River and its tributary, the Yanatili River.

The Parnaíba River (Rio Parnaíba in Portuguese) is located in north-eastern Brazil (Piauí and Maranhão). The Parnaíba river stingray (Potamotrygon signata) is confined to the Parnaíba River.

The Mearim River is located in north-eastern Brazil (Maranhão). The Viana sand knifefish (Rhamphichthys atlanticus) is only definitely known from Lake Viana, which is formed by the flooding waters of the Pindaré River, a tributary of the Mearim River.

The Paraíba do Sul River is located in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo, Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro). The Paraíba do Sul tetra (Brycon insignis) is confined to the Paraíba do Sul River.

The São João River is located in south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro). Constancia’s lyrefin (Simpsonichthys constanciae) is confined to the São João River.

The Jacuí River (Rio Jacuí in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul). The Jacuí catfish (Lepthoplosternum tordilho) is confined to the Jacuí River, where it is threatened by habitat degradation.

The Tubarão River (Rio Tubarão in Portuguese) is located in south-eastern Brazil (Santa Catarina). The Tubarão driftwood catfish (Glanidium catharinensis) is confined to the Tubarão River.

Coasts and Satellite Islands

The coasts of the Amazonian Region comprise relatively few offshore islands but, at least historically, a wide variety of habitats. These include tropical forests, mangroves, and xeric areas.

Two species of burrowing rodent, Lam’s tuco-tuco (Ctenomys lami) and Flamarion’s tuco-tuco (C. flamarioni), are confined to small areas of coastal sand dunes in southeastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul). Both are threatened by loss of habitat.

The plain-flanked rail (Rallus wetmorei) is found patchily along a small stretch of mangroves and saline lagoons in coastal northern Venezuela (Falcón, Carabobo, and Aragua states).

The restinga tyrannulet (Phylloscartes kronei) is a type of flycatcher confined to a narrow coastal strip in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul). It is threatened by loss of habitat.

The black-hooded antwren (Formicivora erythronotos) is known only from the region of Ilha Grande Bay in southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro). Not seen for a century after its original collection, it was rediscoverd in 1987 and now known from a handful of small, scattered localities.

Lutz’s tree iguana (Liolaemus lutzae) is confined to a small area of coastal sand dunes in south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro). Boulenger’s tree iguana (L. occipitalis) is confined to sandy coastal areas of south-eastern Brazil (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul).

Miyata’s scaly eyed dwarf gecko (Lepidoblepharis miyatai) is confined to a single beach in north-western Colombia (Magdalena department). Last seen in 1964, it is possibly extinct.

The Salamanca ground snake (Atractus macondo) is known only from a single specimen collected from coastal north-western Colombia (Magdalena department).

Merten’s redbelly toad (Melanophryniscus dorsalis) and Miranda-Ribeiro’s redbelly toad (M. pachyrhynus) are both confined to small areas of coastal south-eastern Brazil (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), where they are threatened by loss of habitat.

The insular caecilian (Luetkenotyphlus insulanus) is known from São Sebastião Island and a small area of adjacent mainland in south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).

Restinga

Restingas are a type of moist forest found in coastal eastern Brazil that form on sandy, nutrient-poor soils. They are characterized by medium-sized trees and shrubs adapted to these conditions.

The Lagoa dos Patos tree iguana (Liolaemus arambarensis) is confined to a small area of coastal south-eastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul).

The Natal pygmy gecko (Coleodactylus natalensis), one of the world’s smallest lizards, is known only from a small area of eastern coastal Brazil (Rio Grande do Norte).

The Alhandra heart-tongued frog (Phyllodytes brevirostris) is known only from a single locality in eastern coastal Brazil (Paraíba).

The Sapiranga humming frog (Chiasmocleis sapiranga) is known only from the Sapiranga Reserve in eastern coastal Brazil (Bahia).

The Paraguaná Peninsula

The Paraguaná Peninsula (Peninsula de Paraguaná in Spanish) is an island-like feature connected by a narrow isthmus to the coast of north-western Venezuela (Falcón state).

The Paraguaná spiny pocket mouse (Heteromys oasicus) is confined to two small, isolated populations on the Paraguaná Peninsula, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

The Paraguaná moustached bat (Pteronotus paraguanensis) is confined to three cave colonies on the Paraguaná Peninsula, one of which is subject to frequent human vandalism.

Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago, located on the continental shelf off north-eastern Venezuela, are the southernmost of the Lesser Antilles. Zoogeographically speaking, however, they are more related to continental South America than to the West Indies.

The Trinidad worm snake (Amerotyphlops trinitatus) is known from a few scattered localities on both Trinidad and Tobago.

Urich’s robber frog (Pristimantis urichi) is confined to Trinidad and Tobago, where it has undergone a serious population decline possibly due to chytridiomycosis.

Trinidad

Trinidad is located 11 km off the north-eastern coast of Venezuela.

The Trinidad piping guan (Pipile pipile) is a turkey-like bird that was historically common throughout much of Trinidad but has been significantly reduced due to habitat destruction and hunting. Having been extirpated throughout the lowlands it now appears to be confined to the mountains of the north, where the total population in 2009 was estimated at less than 200. A few may survive as well within the Trinity Hills in the south of the island.

The Trinidad coffee snake (Ninia francisco) is known only from a single specimen collected in 2014 from northern Trinidad.

The golden tree frog (Phytotriades auratus) is known only from two localities in the mountains of northern Trinidad.

The yellow-throated poison dart frog (Mannophryne trinitatis) is known only from two disjunct areas of Trinidad, where it is threatened by loss of habitat. Tobago

Tobago is located 35 km north-east of Trinidad. It is smaller and less populous than the latter island.

Hailey’s parrot snake (Leptophis haileyi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 2013 from northeastern Tobago.

The Bloody Bay poison dart frog (Mannophryne olmonae) is confined to central and eastern Tobago.

The Tobago robber frog (Pristimantis turpinorum) is known only from a few localities in north-eastern Tobago.

The Tobago glass frog (Hyalinobatrachium orientale tobagoensis) is confined to Tobago.

Margarita Island

Margarita Island (Isla de Margarita in Spanish) is located in the southern Caribbean Sea off the north-central coast of Venezuela.

The Margarita capuchin (Sapajus apella margaritae) is a type of monkey confined to four forest fragments on the eastern side of the island. The total population is estimated at less than 300.

The yellow-spotted tree rat (Pattonomys flavidus) is known only from two localities on Margarita Island.

The Margarita skink (Copeoglossum margaritae) is known from three specimens collected in 1953 and 1967, along with an observation in 2004. It is apparently confined to dwarf cloud forest, where it is protected within a national park.

Marajó

Marajó is a large island located within the Amazon delta of Pará state.

The Marajó black-masked tanager (Coryphaspiza melanotis marajoara) is confined to Marajó.

The Marajó catfish (Phreatobius cisternarum) is a subterranean species confined to Marajó.

The Fernando de Noronha Islands

The Fernando de Noronha Islands (Ilhas Fernando de Noronha in Portuguese) are an archipelago of 21 islands and islets located about 350 km off the Brazilian coast. They are actually the visible parts of a range of submerged volcanos. Most of the original vegetation was cut down during the nineteenth century when the island was used as a prison, in order to keep the prisoners from hiding and making rafts. The subfossil remains of an undescribed, extinct endemic rail have been found. Sadly, we will likely never know anything more about it.

Vespucci’s noronhomys (Noronhomys vespuccii) was an endemic rodent mentioned by the explorer Amerigo Vespucci. It is thought to have gone extinct sometime during the early sixteenth century.

The Noronha elaenia (Elaenia ridleyana), a type of flycatcher, is found on the main island as well as on Ilha Rata, the largest associated islet. It is considered rare.

Trindade and Martim Vaz Archipelago

The Trindade and Martim Vaz Archipelago (Ilhas Trindade e Martim Vaz in Portuguese) is an archipelago located off the coast of Espírito Santo, consisting of five islands and several rocks and stacks.

The Trindade lesser frigatebird (Fregata ariel trinitatis) has disappeared from Trindade Island, but small numbers still breed on an offshore islet.

The Trindade petrel (Pterodroma arminjoniana) is a type of seabird that, in the Atlantic, breeds only on Trindade Island. The species ranges at other times throughout the Atlantic and Indian oceans.

Queimada Grande

Queimada Grande (Ilha da Queimada Grande in Portuguese) is a small island located 33 km off the coast of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). It is still largely covered by native Atlantic Forest, although much has been lost by burning.

The golden lancehead (Bothrops insularis) is a type of pit viper confined to Queimada Grande, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

Peixoto’s snouted tree frog (Scinax peixotoi) is confined to Queimada Grande.

The Alcatrazes Islands

The Alcatrazes Islands (Ilhas Alcatrazes in Portuguese) are located approximately 35 km off the coast of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). They consist of five larger islands and numerous smaller islets.

The Alcatrazes lancehead (Bothrops alcatraz) is a type of pit viper confined to the main island (Alcatrazes).

The Alcatrazes snouted tree frog (Ololygon alcatraz) is confined to the main island (Alcatrazes).

Miscellaneous Islands

Curaçao is located in the Leeward Antilles approximately 65 km north of Venezuela. It is actually comprised of two islands, one of which is uninhabited.

The three-scaled false coral snake (Erythrolamprus triscalis) is only known from the leeward island of Curaçao, where it is protected within Cristoffel National Park.

Aruba is located in the Leeward Antilles about 30 km off the coast of Venezuela. It has a dry climate and an arid, cactusstrewn landscape. The Aruba cascabel rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus unicolor) is confined to thorn scrub and xeric areas on the south-eastern half of the island, where the total population is estimated at less than 230 adults.

Moleques do Sul Island (Ilha Moleques do Sul in Portuguese) is one of a small group of islands off the coast of Santa Catarina state, south-eastern Brazil. The Moleques do

Sul guinea pig (Cavia intermedia) is known only from a small state park on the island of Moleques do Sul. The total world population is less than 50.

Porcos Pequena Island (Ilha de Porcos Pequena in Portuguese) is a small, privately owned island off the northern coast of São Paulo state, Brazil. Faivovich’s snouted tree frog (Scinax faivovichi) is confined to the island.

Grande Island (Ilha Grande in Portuguese) is located off the coast of south-eastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro).The Grande Island torrent frog (Hylodes fredi) is confined to Grande Island.

San Sebastian Island (Ilha São Sebastião in Portuguese) is located off the coast of south-eastern Brazil (São Paulo). The giant Atlantic tree rat (Phyllomys thomasi) and Fausto’s button frog (Cycloramphus faustoi) are both confined to San Sebastian Island.

 

Anthropogenic effects on the flora and fauna

Based on archaeological evidence from an excavation at Caverna da Pedra Pintada in northern Brazil, humans first settled within the Amazonian Region at least 11,200 years ago, having migrated south through Central America and the Isthmus of Panama. Subsequent development led to lateprehistoric settlements along the periphery of the Amazon Rainforest by ad 1250, which induced alterations to the forest cover. For a long time it was thought that the Amazon was never more than sparsely populuated, in the belief that it was impossible to sustain a large number of humans through agriculture given the poor soil. However, recent anthropological findings have suggested that the region was actually densely populated, and that some five million people may have lived there by ad 1500 divided between coastal settlements and inland dwellers. By 1900 the population had fallen to around one million, and by the early 1980s it was less than 200,000. Up until very recently there were still a few uncontacted Stone Age tribes in remote areas of the Amazon. 

European exploration and colonization of this region began with Christopher Columbus. In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, he first reached mainland South America. He and his crew would visit the mouth of the Orinoco River and the Paria Peninsula in what is now Venezuela, along with the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, Margarita, and Grenada. A few years earlier, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of the day, signed a treaty with the pope by which they agreed to divide up all the expected new lands outside of Europe. In 1499 the Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda explored the northern South American coast from what is now French Guiana to Colombia, in the process becoming the first to enter Lake Maracaibo. That same year the Italian Amerigo Vespucci explored the mouth of the Amazon River and the coast of what is now northern Brazil. In 1501–02 the Portuguese explorer Gonçalo Coelho reach Guanabara Bay in what is now the state of Rio de Janeiro, in south-eastern Brazil. In 1527–28 the Venetian explorer Sebastian Cabot explored far up the Paraná River past its confluence with the Paraguay River. Beginning in the 1530s South America would be divided up into colonies by the competing empires, and its people and resources exploited by conquistadors. As always, they brought with them European infectious diseases (chiefly smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) to which the native populations had no immune resistance, which resulted in large-scale depopulation of the latter. Systems of forced labour also contributed to the decline. After this, African slaves, who had the necessary immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace the natives. In 1531 the Spanish explorer Diego de Ordaz ascended the Orinoco River to the Atures Rapids, just past its confluence with the Meta River. In 1532–33 Francisco Pizarro explored the interior of Peru, and in 1541–42 Francisco de Orellana sailed down the length of the Amazon River. After a series of wars during the early nineteenth century a number of independent states were established. 

In recent historical time (i.e. since ad 1500), the Amazonian Region has lost at least 20 species/1 subspecies of vertebrates. Among the extinct forms 2 species are mammals, 4 species/1 subspecies are birds, 1 species is a reptile, 11 species are amphibians, and 1 species is a freshwater fish. Another 73 species are possibly extinct, and 3 species are currently extinct in the wild. 

In addition, there are 1815 species/64 subspecies currently threatened with extinction (that is to say, either Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List, as well as certain forms either listed as Data Deficient or Not Assessed but which are clearly at some risk of extinction). Of these, 209 species/7 subspecies are mammals, 324 species/52 subspecies are birds, 144 species/3 are reptiles, 932 species are amphibians, and 206 species are freshwater fishes.