The African Region

The African Region includes all of sub-Saharan Africa with the exception of the Guineo-Congolian Region. It includes a few coastal islands along with the remote islands of the South Atlantic, although not Madagascar or the island groups of the western Indian Ocean (which are treated as a distinct realm). In general the climate is drier than that of the Guineo-Congolian Region.

 

Species and subspecies

The African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) is the largest living terrestrial animal. The species is still found widely across sub-Saharan Africa outside the rainforest belt, most typically in savanna and miombo areas, but this distribution is becoming highly fragmented. Whole populations have been devastated by the illegal ivory trade in recent years, as well as by trophy and bushmeat hunters. They are known to have become extirpated from The Gambia in 1913, Burundi in the 1970s, Mauritania in the 1980s and Swaziland in 1920 (where they were reintroduced in the 1980s and 1990s). Loss of habitat and human–elephant conflict is also a concern. 

The black or hook-lipped rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) was historically found throughout most of African south of the Sahara. While primarily a lowland savanna animal, it exhibits some ecological flexibility, including desert areas and montane savannas. For most of the twentieth century it was the most numerous of all rhinos but has long been mercilessly hunted for meat and trophies as well as for its horns, which are erroneously believed to have magical or medicinal properties and are used as well in the making of ceremonial Arab daggers. Around 1900 there were still probably several hundred thousand (and perhaps as many as 850,000), but by the late 1960s their numbers were reduced to an estimated 70,000. From there on the decline became much more dramatic. By 1981 only 10,000–15,000 remained, and in the early 1990s the total dipped below 2500. Since then, thanks mainly to increased protection of wild stocks, the number had recovered somewhat to 4880 by 2010. Nevertheless, at least three of the eight described subspecies are already extinct. The western black rhinoceros (D. b. longipes) once lived in South Sudan, northern Central African Republic, southern Chad, northern Cameroon, north-eastern Nigeria, and south-eastern Niger. The range possibly stretched west to the Niger River in western Niger, although this is unconfirmed. The last known wild specimens lived in northern Cameroon. In 2006 an intensive survey across its putative range in Cameroon failed to locate any, and in 2011 it was officially declared extinct. 

The quagga (Equus quagga quagga), a distinctive horse-like mammal with striped foreparts, was long considered to have been a distinct species but is now generally thought to have been a subspecies of the plains zebra (E. quagga). Historically it lived on the grasslands (now Karoo subdeserts) of the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal rivers, and west of the Drakensberg. In 1775 the quagga was still found near the coast of Cape Agulhas, and in 1812 herds of 30–50 roamed the plains between Fraserburg and Hanover, often in the company of white-tailed gnus (Connochaetes gnou) and South African ostriches (Struthio camelus australus). European farmers hunted the quagga heavily, using the meat to feed their African workers. In about 1865 they began to kill the animals for their hides as well, which were in great demand in the coast district and among the Boers for use as grain sacks. The last wild quagga was probably killed in 1878. Prior to that, several had been brought to Europe and kept in zoological gardens, but no serious attempts to breed them seem to have been made. The last one died in the Amsterdam Zoo on 12 August 1883. Only two were ever photographed alive, and only about two dozen skins are preserved today. In 1984 it became the first extinct animal to have its DNA analysed. The Quagga Project is currently trying to recreate the phonotype of hair pattern and related characteristics by the selective breeding of Burchell’s zebras (E. q. burchellii).

The black wildebeest or white-tailed gnu (Connochaetes gnou) formerly ranged across the grassy veld and karoo steppes of Cape Province and on the high veld of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, where at one time it was probably the most common of the larger ungulates to be found there. Even these vast numbers, however, could not withstand the terrible slaughter that began at the end of the eighteenth century, and probably not a single black wildebeest was left alive in the whole of the Transvaal by the end of 1885. It would certainly have been completely exterminated if not for some farmers in the Orange Free State, who carefully protected what was left of the few remaining herds. With the establishment of a system of protected areas in South Africa numbers began to rise, and by the end of the 1960s there were some 1800 living wild in South Africa. Today there are thought to be more than 16,000. Populations have been reintroduced to Swaziland and Lesotho where they had long been extirpated, as well as introduced outside their historic range into Namibia, where they have now become well established. 

Grévy’s zebra (Equus grevyi) is a large, distinct species with a long, narrow head, making it look more like a mule than a horse. An inhabitant of the semi-arid grasslands of the Horn of Africa, it suffered a substantial reduction in numbers owing to habitat degradation and hunting. It is now confined to parts of Ethiopia and northern Kenya, having been extirpated from south-western Somalia in the mid-1970s. The total population in 2014 was estimated at about 2680, down from an around 15,600 in the early 1980s, and 5800 a decade later. Two subspecies of mountain zebra (E. zebra) are largely endemic to the Great Escarpment of the Central Plateau (see below). The Cape mountain zebra (E. z. zebra) is the smallest and most geographically isolated of all existing zebras. Historically it was widely distributed along the mountain ranges that formed the southern and western edge of the Central Plateau, from Namaqualand to the Drakensberg, where it climbed on steep slopes up to about 2100 m. It must have been the first zebra ever seen by Europeans, although apparently it was not particularly numerous when they began to settle in the Cape area because, as early as 1656, it was already being protected by Jan van Riebeek. Nevertheless, hunting continued. By 1937 the Mountain Zebra National Park was established on a farm in the eastern Cape Province, where there were just six zebras. In 1965 there were 57 animals in the national park and 75 in the whole of South Africa. Since then their numbers have been steadily increasing, although today surviving natural populations occur only in Mountain Zebra National Park, Gamka Mountain Reserve, and in the Kamanassie Mountains. Others have been reintroduced to various parts of their former range, mainly in national parks and nature reserves. Hartmann’s mountain zebra (E. z. hartmannae) occurs in the dry mountains between the Namib Desert and the central plateau in western Namibia, and possibly in Iona National Park in far south-western Angola. It remains relatively common despite the threat of hunting for its skins and farming activities such as fencing, which reduces its access to water. Populations have been introduced outside their natural range in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape, where they potentially pose a hybridization threat to the indigenous Cape Mountain zebra (E. z. zebra). 

The largest antelopes in the world are the elands. Two species are found in Africa, although only the giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus) is threatened at present. The eastern giant eland (T. d. gigas) is known for certain only from national parks in Cameroon, Chad, and the Central African Republic, but may still exist as well in parts of Sudan and northern Uganda. The western giant eland (T. d. derbianus) formerly occurred across West Africa, but has been exterminated from most of its former range by overhunting. It is now reduced to a few hundred individuals living in protected areas in Senegal and Mali. 

The East African oryx (Oryx beisa) is divided into two subspecies, both of which are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. The beisa oryx (O. b. beisa) once inhabited a large area of north-eastern Africa from north-eastern Sudan to the Tana River in Kenya, but is today largely confined to parts of Ethiopia and northern Kenya, with a small population in South Sudan. The fringe-eared oryx (O. b. callotis) is found south of the Tana River in south-eastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania. 

The dibatag (Ammodorcas clarkei) is a rare type of gazelle confined to the Ogaden region of south-eastern Ethiopia and northern and central Somalia. It has disappeared from substantial parts of its former range, as for instance parts of northern Ogaden and northern Somalia, and is under heavy pressure elsewhere from armed pastoralists, overgrazing of livestock, and drought. 

Soemmerring’s gazelle (Nanger soemmerringii) is divided into at least three rather ill-defined subspecies found patchily within the arid steppes and grasslands of north-eastern Africa. The Sudan Soemmerring’s gazelle (N. s. soemmeringii) is confined to a small area of eastern coastal Sudan. The Borani Soemmerring’s gazelle (N. s. butteri) occurs in south-eastern Ethiopia. The Berber Soemmerring’s gazelle (N. s. berberana) is found disjunctly in northern Ethiopia, Eritrea, and coastal Somalia. The small population of ‘dwarf’ Soemmerring’s gazelles inhabiting Dahlak Kebir Island off the coast of Eritrea may also qualify as distinct. All are threatened by uncontrolled hunting and habitat destruction.

Speke’s gazelle (Gazella spekei), the smallest of all the gazelles, historically inhabited much of the Horn of Africa in eastern Ethiopia and Somalia, but had already been much reduced in number by the late 1980s due to uncontrolled hunting, drought, and overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock. The species is now likely extirpated in Ethiopia, and continues to be seriously threatened in Somalia. 

Two subspecies of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), previously discussed, occur in sub-Saharan Africa within a wide range of habitats. Both are threatened by loss of habitat, hunting for their skins and persecution by farmers. The south-east African cheetah (A. j. jubatus) is found patchily in Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia. The north-east African cheetah (A. j. soemmeringii) is confined to a few small population pockets in northern Central African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, and South Sudan. The so-called ‘king cheetah’ is a rare genetic mutation for cream-coloured fur with large, blotchy spots, and dark stripes. 

The black-footed cat (Felis nigripes), the smallest wild cat in Africa, remains widespread within the arid areas of southern Africa (South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, and possibly southwestern Zimbabwe). It is everywhere rare, however, and threatened by loss of habitat and human persecution. 

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), previously discussed, is divided into a number of subspecies that are threatened by loss of habitat, human persecution, and infectious disease. The West African wild dog (L. p. manguensis) was historically widespread from Senegal to Nigeria, but now survives only in two disjunct populations totalling less than 100. The East African wild dog (L. p. lupinus) and the the Somali wild dog (L. p. somalicus) are both found patchily in eastern Africa. 

The Rondo dwarf galago (Paragalago rondoensis), one of the world’s most threatened primates, was historically found in both montane and lowland forest in eastern Tanzania. Extirpated from many areas due to loss of habitat, it is now known only from eight isolated forest patches. 

Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) is the most widespread of African pangolins, being found in a variety of habitats throughout much of eastern and southern Africa. It has suffered massive declines, however, due to ongoing exploitation for use as bushmeat and in ‘traditional medicine’, with increasing intercontinental trade to markets in Asia. 

The Berbera gerbil (Gerbillus acticola) is known only from a few individuals collected at various elevations in northwestern Somalia. 

The white-tailed rat (Mystromys albicaudatus) is a rare species found sporadically in grassland and scrub areas of South Africa and Lesotho. 

Duthie’s golden mole (Chlorotalpa duthieae) is known only from a few localities within a narrow band along the southern coast of South Africa (Western Cape and Eastern Cape). 

Heller’s pipistrelle bat (Pipistrellus aero) is known only from a few disjunct localities in central Kenya and possibly north-western Ethiopia. 

Parisi’s slit-faced bat (Nycteris parisii) is known only from three specimens collected from southern Somalia, southern Ethiopia, and northern Cameroon. 

Morris’ mouse-eared bat (Myotis morrisi) is known only from two widely separated localities (north-eastern Nigeria and western Ethiopia). 

Hamilton’s tomb bat (Taphozous hamiltoni) is known only from a very few records, mainly in east-central Africa (Sudan, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania), with an additional report from southern Chad.

The Somali ostrich (Struthio molybdophanes) is still found across the Horn of Africa in Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, and Kenya, although populations have been declining since the late 1980s due to hunting and overcollection of eggs.

Ludwig’s bustard (Neotis ludwigii) is a large, terrestrial bird found over a large area of south-western Africa (southwestern Angola, Namibia, south-western Botswana, and western and central South Africa). It is threatened mainly by collisions with power lines. 

The southern black bustard (Afrotis afra) is a type of large terrestrial bird that was historically common throughout southwestern South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape). It has been much reduced by loss of habitat. 

The southern ground hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri) is a large, carnivorous species still widespread in eastern and southern Africa, but is everywhere declining due to habitat destruction and human persecution. 

The blue crane (Anthropoides paradiseus) is found throughout much of South Africa, with an additional disjunct breeding population in northern Namibia. The species has undergone a drastic decline since the 1970s due to habitat destruction, poisoning (both accidental and intentional), collisions with power lines and other factors. 

The African crowned cranes (Balearica) are everywhere threatened by wetland drainage, overgrazing of livestock, and pesticide pollution. The grey crowned crane (B. regulorum) is still found over a large area of eastern and southern Africa, where it is divided into two subspecies. The South African grey crowned crane (B. r. regulorum) is found from Mozambique south through Zimbabwe to South Africa and west to Namibia and Angola. The East African grey crowned crane (B. r. gibbericeps) occurs from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya south through Tanzania to Mozambique. The black crowned crane (B. pavonina) is usually found within the shallow wetlands of sub-Saharan Africa during the breeding season, at other times ranging into dry savanna and near croplands. The nominate form (B. p. pavonina) occurs patchily in Senegal, Gambia, southern Mauritania, southern Mali, Burkina Faso, and northern Togo, while Cecilia’s black crowned crane (B. p. ceciliae) is found in southern Niger, southern Chad, northern Central African Republic, northern Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, and western Ethiopia. 

The martial eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus) is a very large species found throughout sub-Saharan Africa outside the rainforest belt. It is generally rare, however, and threatened by habitat destruction, persecution (shooting and trapping) by farmers, and other factors. 

The black harrier (Circus maurus) is a type of hawk found throughout South Africa and Namibia. The species is everywhere rare and largely dependent upon protected areas. 

The Cape vulture (Gyps coprotheres) is found in the open country of southern Africa, where it nests on cliffs. It has been declining dramatically everywhere since at least the 1980s due mainly to the decrease in the available amount of large carrion, poisoning (often targeted), electrocution or collision with power lines, and loss of habitat. 

The fynbos buttonquail (Turnix hottentottus) is confined to a small area of lowland and montane scrub in southern South Africa (Western Cape and Eastern Cape), where it is threatened by habitat destruction. 

Fischer’s lovebird (Agapornis fischeri) is a type of small parrot native to northern and north-western Tanzania, although during times of drought flocks will temporarily migrate west into Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda. Very common up until the 1970s, it has since undergone a considerable population decline due to trapping for the international cage-bird trade. The species has been introduced into central Kenya, and wild birds have also been observed in south-eastern France, Florida, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, although these appear to be escaped pets and not viable breeding populations. 

The Somali pigeon (Columba oliviae) is a rare species confined to coastal north-eastern Somalia. 

The Amani sunbird (Hedydipna pallidigaster) is found patchily in south-eastern Kenya and in central and northeastern Tanzania, in both lowland and montane forest pockets. It is threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Sokoke pipit (Anthus sokokensis) is a type of passerine bird found patchily in both dry and moist lowland forest in south-eastern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania. 

Benson’s papyrus warbler (Calamonastides bensoni) is confined to Lake Mweru, at the mouth of the Luapula River in Zambia and to a few adjacent swampy areas in Democratic Republic of Congo. The thin-billed papyrus warbler (C. gracilirostris) has a severely fragmented range within the Great Lakes region of Central Africa, occurring in western Kenya, western Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, and north-western Tanzania. Both are threatened by loss of their wetland habitat. 

The white-winged apalis (Apalis chariessa) is a type of warbler with a highly disjunct range in East Africa, where it is divided into two subspecies (one of which is now extinct). Macpherson’s white-winged apalis (A. c. macphersoni) is known from the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountains of Tanzania, Mount Chiperone, Mount Mulanje, and the Namuli Massif in Mozambique, and a few localities in southeastern Malawi. The Karamoja apalis (A. karamojae) is known disjunctly from north-eastern Uganda and northern Tanzania. 

The African spurred tortoise (Centrochelys sulcata), one of the largest tortoises in the world, is confined to the southern edge of the Sahara Desert as well as the Sahel. 

The pancake tortoise (Malacochersus tornieri) lives in semi-arid and savanna woodland areas of southern Kenya and eastern Tanzania, with an additional, introduced population possibly living in Zimbabwe. Thanks to its flat shell it is able to take refuge in narrow rocky crevices and under stones where, when disturbed, it can inflate the body to such a size that it is almost impossible to drag it out from its shelter. The species is threatened by habitat destruction and overexploitation by the international pet trade. 

The Dutumi house gecko (Hemidactylus tanganicus) is known only from two localities in Tanzania (Dutumi and Mkomazi national parks). 

Scheffler’s dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus scheffleri) is known only from two localities in south-eastern Kenya in the vicinity of the Chyulu Hills and Kibwezi, where it was last recorded in the 1930s. There is an additional disjunct record from an undefined locality in north-central Tanzania. 

Pickersgill’s reed frog (Hyperolius pickersgilli) is confined to coastal eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). 

The spotted shovel-nosed frog (Hemisus guttatus) is found patchily in eastern coastal South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga) and possibly Swaziland. 

Bilbo Baggins’ rain frog (Breviceps bagginsi) is confined to three disjunct areas in eastern coastal South Africa (Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal). 

The Changamwe caecilian (Boulengerula changamwensis) is known only from a small number of specimens collected in southern Kenya and Malawi. 

Mountains and Highlands

The African Region includes a number of mountainous areas, the most important of which include the Ethiopian Highlands, the Eastern Rift Mountains and Eastern Arc Mountains, the Southern and Eastern Highlands, the Central Plateau, and the Cape Fold Mountains. All provide a wide range of habitats and very often a last refuge for many species. 

The highland crested mangabey or kipunji (Rungwecebus kipunji) is a type of monkey known only from two populations separated by some 350 km of non-forested land. The first occurs in the high-elevation Rungwe-Kitulo Forest in the Southern Highlands of south-western Tanzania. The latter includes the Mount Rungwe Forest Reserve and the Livingstone Forest, both of which lie within Kitulo National Park. The other population lives in the Vikongwa Valley, Ndundulu Forest, within the Kilombero Nature Reserve of the Udzungwa Mountains in south-central Tanzania. Simultaneously discovered by two separate research teams in 2003–2004, the species is highly threatened by loss of habitat and numbers considerably less than 2000 individuals in total. 

The mountain dwarf galago (Paragalago orinus) is found sporadically throughout the Eastern Arc Mountains and Southern Highlands of central and north-eastern Tanzania, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.

Two subspecies of mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorfula), previously discussed, are threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. Chanler’s mountain reedbuck (R. f. chanleri) is found in the mountains of south-eastern Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. The southern mountain reedbuck (R. f. fulvorufula) occurs in South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, and Mozambique. 

Abbot’s duiker (Cephalophus spadix) is a rare and elusive type of small antelope known only from a few scattered populations across Tanzania, specifically in the Eastern Arc Mountains, the Southern Highlands, and on Mount Kilimanjaro. It is threatened by snaring and habitat destruction. 

The Tanzanian groove-toothed rat (Otomys lacustris) is confined to isolated populations in extreme northern Malawi, south-central Tanzania, and south-western Kenya, with an additional record from northern Zambia. 

De Winton’s African dormouse (Graphiurus angolensis) is known only from a few localities in Angolia and western Zambia. 

Vernay’s climbing mouse (Dendromus vernayi) is known only from its original collection in the 1930s from east-central Angola. 

The giant golden mole (Chrysospalax trevelyani) is the largest and rarest golden mole species, being confined to a small area of montane forest in south-eastern South Africa (Eastern Cape). 

Kihaule’s mouse shrew (Myosorex kihaulei) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains and Mount Rungwe in southcentral Tanzania. 

The desperate shrew (Crocidura desperata) is confined to relict forest patches within the Udzungwa Mountains and Mount Rungwe in southern Tanzania. 

The Taita falcon (Falco fasciinucha) is a small species found patchily in east-central Africa, chiefly in gorges and escarpments up to 3800 m where it uses cliffs for nesting. As a result of this specialization it is everywhere rare, although it appears to have formerly been associated with human settlements at lower elevations where it was often hunted. 

The Djibouti francolin (Pternistis ochropectus) is a type of terrestrial gamebird confined to montane cedar forests in the Goda and Mabla mountains of Djibouti. It is threatened by loss of habitat. 

Belcher’s spotted ground thrush (Geokichla guttata belcheri) is confined to the mountains of southern Malawi. 

The Thyolo alethe (Chamaetylas choloensis) is a type of passerine bird confined to a few scattered montane localities in southern Malawi and north-western Mozambique. 

The Namuli apalis (Apalis lynesi) is a type of passerine bird known only from Mount Namuli and Mount Mabu in northern Mozambique. The yellow-throated apalis (A. flavigularis) is confined to Mount Mulanje, Mount Zomba, and Mount Malosa in southern Malawi (Southern region). Both are threatened by loss of habitat. 

The blue swallow (Hirundo atrocaerulea) is a migratory species found throughout the mountains of Eastern Africa from Uganda to South Africa, but confined for breeding purposes to a few widely separated areas on montane grassland. 

Archer’s lark (Heteromirafra archeri) is known only from two small localities within the highlands of eastern Ethiopia and (formerly at least) north-western Somalia, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat. 

The dapple-throat (Arcanator orostruthus) is a type of passerine bird divided into three subspecies. The nominate form (A. o. orostruthus) is confined to a few scattered populations in north-eastern Mozambique. 

Swynnerton’s robin (Swynnertonia swynnertoni) is divided into three subspecies spread over a few small and scattered localities. The Mozambique Swynnerton’s robin (S. s. umbratica) is known only from Mount Gorongosa and Mount Mabu in central and north-eastern Mozambique. 

The sombre rockchat (Oenanthe dubia) is a passerine bird known only from the highlands of east-central Ethiopia and north-western Somalia. 

The Iringa akalat (Sheppardia lowei) is a type of flycatcher found patchily in montane forest fragments of the Eastern Arc Mountains and Southern Highlands of south-central Tanzania. 

The Namuli spiny pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon tilburyi) is confined to a few isolated mountains in northern Mozambique (Zambézia and Nampula provinces). 

The Lolui mabuya skink (Trachylepis loluiensis) is confined to high-elevation areas on Lolui Island, in Lake Victoria. 

The Mpwapwa worm lizard (Chirindia mpwapwaensis) is known only from two specimens collected in east-central Tanzania. 

The Zambézia bush viper (Atheris mabuensis) is confined to Mount Mabu and Mount Namuli in northern Mozambique. 

The Udzungwa toad (Mertensophryne uzunguensis) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains and the Southern Highlands of south-central Tanzania. The Mashonaland toad (M. anotis) occurs in the Chirinda Forest of eastern Zimbabwe and in the Dombé Forest of adjacent western Mozambique. An additional record from Quirimbas National Park in north-eastern Mozambique may suggest either a much wider distribution, or perhaps represents an as-yet undescribed species. 

The peacock tree frog (Leptopelis vermiculatus) and the large-headed forest tree frog (L. grandiceps) are both found patchily in the mountains of eastern and central Tanzania. 

The Rungwe big-fingered frog (Probreviceps rungwensis) occurs patchily in the Udzungwa and Mahenge mountains and the Southern Highlands of south-central Tanzania. 

The tiny reed frog (Hyperolius minutissimus) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains and the Southern Highlands of south-central Tanzania. The Eastern Highlands reed frog (H. inyangae) is known only from Nyanga National Park in eastern Zimbabwe and from the Kaningina Forest Reserve in northern Malawi. The spiny-throated reed frog (H. spinigularis) is known from the Mulanje Massif in southern Malawi and from the Namuli Massif in adjacent northern Mozambique.

Broadley’s ridged frog (Ptychadena broadleyi) is known only from the foothills of Mount Mulanje and from Mount Zomba, in southern Malawi. 

France’s screeching frog (Arthroleptis francei) is known only from the Mulanje Massif in southern Malawi and from Mount Mabu and Mount Namuli in northern Mozambique. 

Denhardt’s caecilian (Boulengerula denhardti) is known only from a small area of mid-altitude forest in central Kenya, where it is threatened by agricultural expansion and pesticides. 

The Ethiopian Highlands

The Ethiopian Highlands consist of two main mountainous regions divided by the Great Rift Valley, which taken together comprise the largest continuous high-altitude area on the African continent. Rugged and with little of the surface falling below 1500 m, they are sometimes called the Roof of Africa. 

The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) is endemic to the Ethiopian Highlands. Up until the 1960s this species was common in the Simien Mountains and elsewhere, after which it was accused without justification of being a sheep-killer and a relentless persecution was initiated. In a few years it had become one of the rarest canids in the world, and is now confined to the higher elevations of seven isolated mountain ranges. Two subspecies are recognized. The northern Ethiopian wolf (C. s. simensis) occurs in the north-western Rift Valley (Simien Mountains, Mount Guna, and the Wollo Highlands). The southern Ethiopian wolf (C. s. citernii) is found in the southeastern Rift Valley (Arsi and Bale Mountains). 

The black-clawed brush-furred rat (Lophuromys melanonyx) is known from a few specimens collected from central Ethiopia. The species has been extirpated from west of the Rift Valley, and now appears to be confined to a few areas of highaltitude grassland further south. 

The Guramba shrew (Crocidura phaeura) is known only from a few localities within the Ethiopian Highlands. 

Scott’s mouse-eared bat (Myotis scotti) is confined to a few localities on either side of the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, where it is likely threatened by loss of its forest habitat. 

The Ethiopian long-eared bat (Plecotus balensis) is known only from a few localities within the Ethiopian Highlands. 

The blue-winged goose (Cyanochen cyanoptera) is confined to rivers and lakes within the Ethiopian Highlands, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. 

The Shoa forest tree frog (Leptopelis ragazzii) is confined to a few scattered localities on both sides of the Rift Valley, where it is threatened by the loss of its montane forest habitat. 

The Ethiopian leaf-folding frog (Afrixalus enseticola) is confined to a few scattered localities within the Ethiopian Highlands. 

Largen’s puddle frog (Phrynobatrachus inexpectatus) is known only from three scattered localities within the Ethiopian Highlands. 

Largen’s clawed frog (Xenopus largeni) is an aquatic species found patchily in the Ethiopian Highlands. 

The Western Ethiopian Highlands 

The Western Ethiopian Highlands are located in southwestern, west-central, and north-western Ethiopia (Tigre and Amhara regions), extending into Eritrea. 

The Ethiopian groove-tailed rat (Mylomys rex) is known only from a single skin collected from the Charada Forest in central Ethiopia. 

Yalden’s rat (Desmomys yaldeni) is confined to a small area in south-western Ethiopia encompassing the Sheko Forest. 

The Ethiopian woolly bat (Kerivoula eriophora) is known only from its original collection in the late nineteenth century from northern Ethiopia. 

The Ankober serin (Crithagra ankoberensis) is a type of finch known only from a few localities in the highlands of central and northern Ethiopia. 

The Eritrean blind snake (Letheobia erythraea) is known only from two localities in the arid central highlands of Eritrea. 

Susana’s forest tree frog (Leptopelis susanae) is known only from the Gughe Mountains and from Saja Forest in south-western Ethiopia. Yalden’s forest tree frog (L. yaldeni) is confined to a few localities in north-western Ethiopia. 

Clarke’s leaf-folding frog (Afrixalus clarkei) is known only from two small areas in south-western Ethiopia. 

Wade’s ridged frog (Ptychadena wadei) is known only from a small area of the North-eastern Highlands. 

The Simien Mountains are located in north-western Ethiopia (Amhara region). Its summit, Ras Dashen, is the highest peak in Ethiopia. The important Simien Mountains National Park was established in 1970. 

The northern gelada (Theropithecus gelada gelada) is a large, terrestrial monkey confined to high-altitude Afroalpine grasslands adjacent to deep gorges and cliffs around the Simien Massif. It is threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. 

The walia ibex (Capra walie) is the southernmost of all ibexes and seems to have been long found only in the Simien Mountains, where it was formerly widespread. It was heavily hunted, however, and since at least the mid-twentieth century has been mostly restricted to a 4250-m escarpment on the northern side. In 1970 the Simien Mountains National Park was created here specifically to protect the last remaining walia ibex, then estimated to number around 150. Today the total population is estimated at around 500, both within the park and at four small localities outside its borders. Habitat destruction and degradation is now the main threat. 

The Eastern Ethiopian Highlands 

The Eastern Ethiopian Highlands are located in southcentral Ethiopia (Oromia region). They are further subdivided by two mountainous blocks separated by the Shabelle River Valley. 

The Djaffa Mountains guereza (Colobus guereza gallarum) is restricted to the Ethiopian Highlands east of the Rift Valley. The mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) is a type of antelope found only in the highlands of southern Ethiopia south and east of the Rift Valley. It has been eliminated from much of its former range by hunting and human disturbance. Currently, the majority live in Bale Mountains National Park and on the eastern escarpments of the Bale Massif. Smaller relict populations occur in the Amhar Mountains, the Arsi Mountains, and on the Somkaro-Kurduro ridge. The total number was estimated at between 7000 and 12,500 in the 1960s, falling to 2000–4000 by the 1980s. Numbers are believed to have declined since then. 

Nikolaus’ mouse (Megadendromus nikolausi) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Bale and Chilalo Mountains. 

Lucina’s shrew (Crocidura lucina) is known only from a few localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains. The Bale Mountains shrew (C. bottegoides) occurs in the Harenna Escarpment and on Mount Albasso. Both are threatened by loss of habitat due to wood collection and fires. 

Prince Ruspoli’s turaco (Tauraco ruspolii) inhabits midelevation dry forest and savanna areas in south-central Ethiopia. It has suffered population declines due to habitat degradation and hybridization with the related white-cheeked turaco (T. leucotis). 

The Ethiopian bushcrow (Zavattariornis stresemanni) is a micro-habitat specialist confined to a small area in southern Ethiopia (Oromia region). 

The white-tailed swallow (Hirundo megaensis) is confined to scrubby areas in south-central Ethiopia. 

Salvadori’s seedeater (Crithagra xantholaema) is a type of finch confined to scrubby areas and high-altitude dry forests of the south-eastern Ethiopian Highlands. 

Osgood’s Ethiopia toad (Altiphrynoides osgoodi) is known only from the south-central Ethiopia. The species has not been recorded since 2003 despite intensive surveys, andmay be extinct. 

The Ethiopian ridged frog (Ptychadena nana) is known only from two localities in the Bale and Arsi mountains. 

The Kouni Valley striped frog (Paracassina kounhiensis) is confined to a few scattered localities in the Mendebo and Ahmar mountains. 

The Mendebo Mountains are located south of the Shabelle River Valley in south-central Ethiopia. The important Bale Mountains range, located within the north-western part, are nearly as high as the Simien Mountains and include several peaks over 4000 m. They are protected within Bale Mountains National Park. The Harenna Forest, located in the foothills of the Bale Mountains, is one of the few remaining forest areas in Ethiopia. 

The Bale Mountains monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) is a terrestrial species largely confined to high-elevation bamboo forests within the Bale Mountains and the Sidamo Highlands. 

The large-headed mole rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) is confined to high-elevation grasslands in the Bale Mountains. 

The Harenna shrew (Crocidura harenna) is known only from the Harenna Forest.

Malcolm’s Ethiopia toad (Altiphrynoides malcolmi) is confined to the Bale Mountains.

The Harenna tree frog (Balebreviceps hillmani) is confined to the Harenna Forest.

The Harenna ridged frog (Ptychadena harenna) is confined to the Harenna Forest.

The Bale Mountains frog (Ericabatrachus baleensis) is confined to a single tiny area of montane forest in the Bale Mountains. It is threatened by loss of habitat and perhaps chytrid fungus. 

The Ethiopian Rift Valley

The Ethiopian Rift Valley (also known as the Great Rift Valley) is a branch of the East African Rift that runs through Ethiopia in a south-west direction. It is notably arid and contains a number of salt lakes. 

The Ethiopian thicket rat (Grammomys minnae) is known only from two localities within the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. 

The Nechisar nightjar (Caprimulgus solala) is known for certain only from a single specimen collected in 1990 from the Nechisar Plains in south-western Ethiopia. There have been a few unconfirmed sightings since then. 

The yellow-throated seedeater (Crithagra flavigula) is a type of finch long known only from three specimens collected during the nineteenth century from central Ethiopia. It was rediscovered in very small numbers in 1989 at the same area, and has since been recorded from two other localities. 

The Langano toad (Sclerophrys langanoensis) is known only from the northern Rift Valley of Ethiopia, where it has been recorded from Lake Langano and from Awash National Park. 

The hot springs ridged frog (Ptychadena filwoha) is known only from two closely adjacent springs and pools within the northern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. 

The Gughe Mountains are located in south-western Ethiopia, within the Great Rift Valley. 

Rupp’s mouse (Stenocephalemys ruppi) is confined to the Gughe Mountains. 

The Northern Somalia Highlands

The northern Somalia Highlands are located in northern coastal Somalia, in the Horn of Africa. 

The Somali thrush (Turdus ludoviciae) is confined to mountaintop woodlands in the Northern Somalia Highlands. It remains relatively common in the Daalo Forest and on Mount Wagar. 

Sharpe’s lark (Mirafra sharpii) is known only from northwestern Somalia, though it may possibly extend into adjacent areas of eastern Ethiopia. 

The Warsangli linnet (Linaria johannis) is a type of finch known only from two small areas of the Northern Somalia Highlands. 

The Eastern Rift Mountains

The Eastern Rift Mountains are associated with the East African Rift Valley in Kenya, Tanzania, Sudan, South Sudan, and Uganda. Volcanic in origin, they include some of the largest peaks in Africa.

The eastern or mountain bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci) is a large and spectactular forest antelope confined to a few isolated populations in the forested mountains of central Kenya, including Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon, the Aberdare Range, Mau Forest, and the Cherengani and Chepalungu hills. The survival of the remaining wild population of around 150 is dependent upon more effective protection of remaining forest patches. Fortunately, the subspecies is well established in captivity. 

The East African highland shrew (Crocidura allex) is found patchily in highland areas of south-central Kenya and northern Tanzania, where it is threatened by habitat destruction. 

Sharpe’s longclaw (Macronyx sharpei) is a type of passerine bird confined to a few localities in the highlands of western and central Kenya. 

Abbott’s starling (Poeoptera femoralis) is confined to a few montane forest localities in south-central Kenya and northern Tanzania. 

Hinde’s babbler (Turdoides hindei) is confined to a few localities in south-central Kenya. 

The Eastern Rift sentinel chameleon (Kinyongia excubitor) is found in the Aberdare Range as well as on Mount Kenya and the Nyambeni Hills. It is threatened by loss of habitat and perhaps collection for ‘traditional medicine’. 

The Mount Elgon day gecko (Cnemaspis elgonensis) is confined to eastern Uganda and adjacent Kenya. 

Schmidt’s bold-eyed tree snake (Thrasops schmidti) is confined to highland forest fragments in central Kenya. 

The Eastern Rift worm snake (Leptotyphlops keniensis) is known only from Mount Kenya and environs, and from Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. 

Lönnberg’s toad (Mertensophryne lonnbergi) is found in scattered localities in the highlands on either side of the Great Rift Valley in south-central Kenya, including Mount Kenya. While relatively common and adaptable, it is threatened by loss of habitat. Mocquard’s toad (M. mocquardi) is confined to Mount Kenya, the Kanangop Plateau, and the highlands surrounding Nairobi. 

The Kinangop puddle frog (Phrynobatrachus kinangopensis) and the Irangi puddle frog (P. irangi) are both known only from a few localities in south-central Kenya, where they are threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Nuba Mountains

The Nuba Mountains are located in southern Sudan (South Kordofan). 

Wilson’s snake-eyed skink (Panaspis wilsoni), one of the smallest of all the skinks, is known only from a single specimen collected in the southern Nuba Mountains during the early twentieth century. 

The Imatong Mountains

The Imatong Mountains are located in southern South Sudan and northern Uganda. 

Rupp’s climbing mouse (Dendromus ruppi) is known only from the Imatong Mountains. 

Mount Kineti is the highest peak in the Imatong Mountains. 

The Kineti chameleon (Trioceros kinetensis) is known only from Mount Kineti. 

The Didinga Hills

The Didinga Hills are located in south-eastern South Sudan. 

The Didinga Hills guereza (Colobus guereza dodingae) is a type of leaf-eating monkey confined to the Didinga Hills. 

Mount Nyiro

Mount Nyiro is located within the Ndoto Range, south of Lake Turkana in north-western Kenya (former Rift Valley province). Although surrounded by desert, its upper slopes are forested. 

Macow’s shrew (Crocidura macowi) is a little-known species known only from Mount Nyiro. 

The Nyiru chameleon (Trioceros ntunte) is confined to the montane moorlands of Mount Nyiru. 

The Aberdare Range

The Aberdare Range (formerly known as the Sattima Range) is a 160-km stretch of mountains located in west-central Kenya (former Central and Rift Valley). Aberdare National Park was established in 1950. 

The ultimate shrew (Crocidura ultima) is known only from its original collection in the early twentieth century from the Jombeni Mountains. 

The Aberdare cisticola (Cisticola aberdare) is a warblerlike bird confined to high-elevation grassland areas of the Aberdare Range. 

The Matthews Range

The Matthews Range (known locally as the Lenkiyio Hills) is located in central Kenya (former Rift Valley province). It stretches for about 150 km in a north–south orientation. 

Percival’s guereza (Colobus guereza percivali) is confined to the forested slopes of Mount Gargues, where it continues to be hunted for its beautiful fur. 

Rainey’s shrew (Crocidura raineyi) is known only from lower elevations on Mount Gargues, where it has not been recorded since 1912. 

Mount Kenya

Mount Kenya is located in central Kenya (former Central province). The second highest mountain in Africa after Kilimanjaro, it along with the surrounding forest was designated as a national park in 1949. 

The Kenyan oribi (Ourebia ourebi kenyae), a type of small antelope, formerly occurred on the lower slopes of Mount Kenya but is now extinct. 

The Mount Kenya potto (Perodicticus ibeanus stockleyi) is a type of nocturnal prosimian known only from a single specimen collected in 1938 from montane forest on Mount Kenya. It is most likely extinct.

The giant thicket rat (Grammomys gigas) is confined to montane forest and shrubland on Mount Kenya. 

The Mount Kenya mole shrew (Surdisorex polulus) is known only from two or three specimens collected on Mount Kenya. 

Drews’ worm snake (Epacrophis drewsi) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Kenya in 1957. 

Mount Elgon

Mount Elgon is an extinct shield volcano located on the border between Uganda and Kenya. 

Barbour’s groove-toothed rat (Otomys barbouri) is confined to high-elevation grasslands on Mount Elgon. 

The Elgon mole shrew (Surdisorex schlitteri) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Elgon in 1984. 

Du Toit’s rocky river frog (Arthroleptides dutoiti) is confined to montane forest streams on Mount Elgon, where it was last recorded in 1962. 

Mount Kilimanjaro

Mount Kilimanjaro is located in northern Tanzania near the border with Kenya, within Kilimanjaro National Park. A dormant stratovolcano with a distinctive, snow-covered peak, it is the highest mountain in Africa. 

The Kilimanjaro stream frog (Strongylopus kilimanjaro) is known only from three specimens collected in 1936 from the middle slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. 

Mount Kitumbeine

Mount Kitumbeine is an extinct volcano located in northern Tanzania (Arusha region). 

The Kitumbeine stream frog (Strongylopus kitumbeine) is confined to Mount Kitumbeine. 

The Eastern Arc Mountains

The Eastern Arc Mountains are the oldest in East Africa, having been created at least 100 million years ago. They form a roughly crescent-shaped arc of isolated mountains running from south-eastern Kenya through much of Tanzania, which, although physically separated from each other, share a similar geomorphology and ecology. Some 30 million years ago the entire area was covered by extensive rainforest, but when the climate cooled and dried some 10 million years ago the lowland forests were converted to savanna, leaving the mountain ranges as ‘sky islands’ where the tropical forests continued to survive. This isolation has led to a great deal of endemism and a very diverse flora and fauna. 

Lowe’s servaline genet (Genetta servalina lowei) was long known only from a single skin collected in the Udzungwa Mountains in 1932. Rediscovered in 2000, it has since been caught on camera traps in other areas of the Eastern Arc Mountains, where it is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. 

Two species of shrew (Crocidura) endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains are threatened by loss of their montane forest habitat. The Usambara shrew (C. usambarae) is confined to the Usambara and South Pare mountains in north-eastern Tanzania. Telford’s shrew (C. telfordi) is confined to parts of the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountains of east-central Tanzania. 

Vosseler’s eagle-owl (Bubo poensis vosseleri) is a rare subspecies known from the Usambara and Uluguru Mountains of north-eastern and east-central Tanzania, with a possible sighting in the Nguru Mountains as well. 

The banded sunbird (Anthreptes rubritorques) is confined to montane forest patches in eastern Tanzania. 

The Eastern Arc Swynnerton’s robin (Swynnertonia swynnertoni rodgersi) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains and, marginally, in lowland forest patches within the East Usambara Mountains. 

Nicoll’s weaver (Ploceus nicolli) is divided into two subspecies. The southern Nicoll’s weaver (P. n. anderseni) is known from the Udzungwa and Uluguru mountains of east-central and south-central Tanzania and possibly also the Rubeho Mountains. 

The Rubeho akalat (Sheppardia aurantiithorax) is a type of flycatcher confined to the mountains of central Tanzania. Winifred’s warbler (Scepomycter winifredae) is confined to montane forest areas within the Uluguru, Ukaguru, Udzungwa, and Rubeho mountains of east-central Tanzania. 

The Ukinga girdled lizard (Cordylus ukingensis) is known only from two montane grassland localities in southcentral Tanzania. 

The montane rock agama (Agama montana) is known only from remnant forest patches within the Usumbara and Uluguru mountains of eastern Tanzania. 

Usambara flap-nosed chameleon (Kinyongia tenuis) is known from the East Usumbara Mountains and Magrotto Hill in north-eastern Tanzania. A population in the Shimba Hills of south-eastern Kenya may represent an as-yet undescribed species. 

The Usambara dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus gravis) is confined to the Usambara and South Pare mountains of northeastern Tanzania. 

Two species of bush viper (Atheris) endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains are threatened by loss of habitat. Barbour’s bush viper (A. barbouri) is confined to the Udzungwa and Ukinga mountains of south-central Tanzania. The eyelash bush viper (A. ceratophora) is found pachily in the mountains of eastern Tanzania. 

The Eastern Arc forest snake (Buhoma procterae) is confined to forest fragments in the Udzungwa and Uluguru mountains. 

The black garter snake (Elapsoidea nigra) confined to montane forest patches in north-eastern Tanzania and possibly south-eastern Kenya. 

The Eastern Arc vine snake (Thelotornis usambaricus) is confined to isolated mountain ranges in Tanzania and on the Kenyan coast.

The Rondo worm snake (Afrotyphlops rondoensis) is confined to the Rondo and Makonde plateaus of extreme southeastern Tanzania. The Usambara spotted worm snake (A. gierrai) is confined to the Usambara and Nguru mountains of north-eastern Tanzania. 

Parker’s forest tree frog (Leptopelis parkeri) is found patchily in the mountains of eastern and central Tanzania. 

Burgess’ reed frog (Hyperolius burgessi) is confined to a few isolated massifs in the East Usambara, Uluguru, and South Nguru mountains of eastern Tanzania. 

Yakusin’s rocky river frog (Arthroleptides yakusini) is confined to the mountains of central-eastern Tanzania. 

The Eastern Arc leaf-folding frog (Afrixalus uluguruensis) is found patchily throughout the Eastern Arc Mountains. 

Two species of blue-bellied frog (Hoplophryne) endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains are threatened by loss of habitat. The Eastern Arc blue-bellied frog (H. uluguruensis) is confined to montane forest fragments in the Uluguru, Nguru, Udzungwa, and Mahenge mountains of eastern Tanzania. Rogers’ blue-bellied frog (H. rogersi) is known only from the Usambara and Nguu mountains of north-eastern Tanzania. 

Nieden’s big-fingered frog (Probreviceps macrodactylus) is confined to the East Usambara and Nguru mountains of north-eastern Tanzania. Loveridge’s big-fingered frog (P. loveridgei) and the hard-nosed big-fingered frog (P. durirostris) are both found patchily in the mountains of eastcentral Tanzania. 

The Taita Hills

The Taita hills are located in south-eastern Kenya (former Coast province). They consist of three massifs (Dabida, Sagalla, and Kasigau) historically covered by moist forest, of which only patches remain today. 

The Taita pygmy white-toothed shrew (Suncus aequatorius) is known only from Mount Sagalla and the Chawia Forest in the Taita Hills. 

The Taita thrush (Turdus helleri) is confined to forest patches in the Taita Hills and nearby Mount Mbololo. 

The Taita white-eye (Zosterops silvanus) is confined to the Taita Hills and nearby Mount Kasigau. 

The Taita apalis (Apalis fuscigularis) is a warbler-like bird confined to forest fragments in the Dabida and Mbololo massifs. 

The Taita purple-glossed snake (Amblyodipsas teitana) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Taita Hills in 1936. 

The Taita warty frog (Callulina dawida) is confined to forest fragments in the Dabida and Mbololo massifs. 

Loveridge’s caecilian (Boulengerula taitana) is confined to three of the four Taita Hills (Dawida,Mbololo, and Kasigau). The Sagalla Hill caecilian (B. niedeni) is confined to Sagalla Hill. 

The Pare Mountains

Located in north-eastern Tanzania (Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions), the Pare Mountains are comprised of two subranges (the North and South Pare mountains, respectively). 

The Pare pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon viridis) is confined to the North and South Pare Mountains. 

The South Pare Mountains are located in Kilimanjaro and Tanga regions. 

The South Pare white-eye (Zosterops winifredae) is a type of bird confined to the South Pare Mountains. 

The South Pare screeching frog (Arthroleptis anotis) is confined to the Chome Forest Reserve in the South Pare Mountains. 

The Shengena warty frog (Callulina shengena) and Stanley’s warty frog (C. stanleyi) are both confined to the Chome Forest Reserve in the South Pare Mountains. The North Pare Mountains are located in Kilimanjaro region. 

Lapham’s warty frog (Callulina laphami) is confined to the Kindoroko and Minja forest reserves in the North Pare Mountains. 

The Usambara Mountains

Located in north-eastern Tanzania (Tanga region), the Usambaras comprise the easternmost ranges of the Eastern Arc Mountains. Approximately 90 km long and about half that wide, they were historically clad in tropical forest whose long isolation has resulted in a great deal of endemism. They have been heavily deforested but patches of habitat remain. 

The Usambara shrew (Crocidura tansaniana) is confined to the Usambara Mountains. 

The northern Nicoll’s weaver (Ploceus nicolli nicolli) is confined to the East and West Usambaras. 

The Usumbara spiny pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon spinosus) is confined to the Usambara Mountains. 

The Usambara leaf-folding frog (Afrixalus dorsimaculatus) is confined to the Usambara Mountains. 

Krefft’s puddle frog (Phrynobatrachus krefftii) is confined to the Usambara Mountains. 

The West Usambara Mountains comprise the main body of the Usambara Mountains. 

The Usambara akalat (Sheppardia montana) is a type of flycatcher confined to the West Usambaras.

The West Usambara blade-horned chameleon (Kinyongia multituberculata) is confined to remnant forest patches within the West Usambaras. 

Vestergaard’s tree toad (Nectophrynoides vestergaardi) is known only from the Shume-Magamba and Mazumbai forest reserves and the Ambangulu Tea Estate in the West Usambaras. 

Tanner’s reed frog (Hyperolius tanneri) is known only from a locality near the Mazumbai Forest Reserve and from the Shume-Magambo Forest Reserve in the West Usambaras. 

The hidden screeching frog (Arthroleptis fichika) and Tanner’s screeching frog (A. tanneri) are both confined to the West Usambaras. 

The Mazumbai warty frog (Callulina kisiwamsitu) is confined to remnant forest patches within the West Usambaras.

The East Usambara Mountains, being closer to the coast, receive more rainfall than the West Usambaras, and are also significantly smaller. 

The Usambara hyliota (Hyliota usambara) is a type of passerine bird confined to the East Usambaras, where it is found mainly in the foothills. 

The long-billed forest warbler (Artisornis moreaui) is confined to the East Usambaras. 

The Amani dapple-throat (Arcanator orostruthus amani) is a type of passerine bird confined to the East Usambaras, where in 1990 the population was estimated somewhere in the low thousands. It thereafter underwent a rapid decline and by 2006 had been reduced to only a few pairs. 

Vosseler’s blade-horned chameleon (Kinyongia vosseleri) and the giant East Usambara blade-horned chameleon (K. matschiei) are both confined to the East Usambaras. 

The East Usambara pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon temporalis) is confined to the East Usambaras and Magrotto Hill. 

The Amani tree toad (Nectophrynoides frontierei) is known only from the Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambaras. 

The East Usambara toad (Mertensophryne usambarae) is confined to the foothills of the East Usambaras. 

The Amani forest frog (Parhoplophryne usambarica) is known only from the heavily deforested hills west of Amani in the East Usambaras, where it was last seen in the 1920s. 

The Amani screeching frog (Arthroleptis xenodactylus) is confined to the East Usambaras. 

The East Usambara rocky river frog (Arthroleptides martiensseni) is confined to the East Usambaras. 

The Uluguru Mountains

The Uluguru Mountains are located in east-central Tanzania (northern Morogoro region). The main portion consists of a ridge running roughly north–south and rising to 2630 m at its highest point. 

The Geata mouse shrew (Myosorex geata) is known only from its original collection during the early twentieth century within the Uluguru Mountains. 

The Uluguru bush-shrike (Malaconotus alius) is confined to a small area encompassing part of the Uluguru Nature Reserve. 

Loveridge’s sunbird (Cinnyris loveridgei) is confined to the Uluguru Nature Reserve, on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the Uluguru Mountains. 

The turquoise dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus williamsi) is confined to the Kimbozo and Ruvu forest reserves in the eastern foothills of the Uluguru Mountains, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and illegal collection for the international pet trade. 

The Uluguru limbless skink (Melanoseps emmrichi) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Uluguru Mountains. 

The ornate shovel-snout (Prosymna ornatissima) is a type of snake known only from a small area of forest in the Uluguru Mountains. 

The Uluguru gracile blind snake (Letheobia uluguruensis) is known only from the northern Uluguru Mountains. 

Four species of tree toad (Nectophrynoides) endemic to the Uluguru Mountains are threatened by loss of habitat. The minute tree toad (N. minutus) is confined to a small area of montane rainforest. The pseudo tree toad (N. pseudotornieri) is known only from the Uluguru Nature Reserve. The secret tree toad (N. cryptus) is known only from its original collections during the 1920s in the northern Uluguru Mountains. The smooth forest toad (N. laevis) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Uluguru South Forest Reserve. 

The Uluguru big-fingered frog (Probreviceps uluguruensis) is confined to the Uluguru Mountains. 

The Nyingwa caecilian (Scolecomorphus uluguruensis) is confined to the Uluguru Mountains. 

The Uluguru shellear (Kneria uluguru) is a small freshwater fish confined to streams and rivers of the upper Ruvu drainage descending from the Uluguru Mountains. 

The Nguru Mountains

The Nguru Mountains are located in east-central Tanzania (northern Morogoro region). 

The Nguru spiny pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon acuminatus) is confined to the Nguru Mountains. 

Three species of warty frog (Callulina) endemic to the Nguru Mountains are seriously threatened by loss of habitat. The Kanga warty frog (C. kanga) is known only from two localities within the Kanga Forest Reserve. The Nguru South warty frog (C. meteora) is known only from the Nguru South Forest Reserve. Hansen’s warty frog (C. hanseni) is known only from the western side of the Nguru Mountains. 

The Nguru screeching frog (Arthroleptis nguruensis) and the tiny screeching frog (A. kidogo) are both known only from the Nguru South Forest Reserve. 

The Ukaguru Mountains

The Ukaguru Mountains are located in east-central Tanzania (north-western Morogoro region). 

The wide-headed tree toad (Nectophrynoides laticeps) and Paula’s tree toad (N. paulae) are both known only from the Mamiwa-Kisara Forest Reserve, where they are seriously threatened by loss of habitat. 

Maridad’s tree toad (Churamiti maridadi) is known only from four specimens collected from a single forest fragment in the Ukaguru Mountains. 

The Rubeho Mountains

The Rubeho Mountains are located north of the Udzungwa Mountains in central Tanzania (Dodoma and Morogoro regions). 

The Rubeho forest partridge (Xenoperdix obscuratus) is confined to the Rubeho Mountains. 

The Rubeho spiny-throated reed frog (Hyperolius ukwiva) is known only from a single high-elevation locality within the Rubeho Mountains.

Nike’s screeching frog (Arthroleptis nikeae) appears to be entirely confined to the Mafwemiro Catchment Forest Reserve, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Mahenge Massif

The Mahenge Massif is located in central Tanzania (Morogoro region). 

The Mahenge pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon beraduccii) is confined to the Mahenge Massif. 

The Lupiro reed frog (Hyperolius lupiroensis) is known only from a single locality on the northern tip of the Mahenge Massif. 

The Udzungwa Mountains

The Udzungwa Mountains are a biologically important range in south-central Tanzania (Iringa region). 

The Sanje River mangabey (Cercocebus sanjei) is confined to the vicinity of the Mwanihana Forest and Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, on the eastern slopes of the Udzungwa Mountains. 

The Udzungwa red colobus (Piliocolobus gordonorum) is confined to forest fragments within the Udzungwa Mountains. While nominally safe within a few protected areas, illegal hunting continues. 

The grey-faced elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon udzungwensis) is found only in the Ndundulu-Luhomero and Mwanihana forests, Udzungwa Mountains. 

Phillips’ Congo shrew (Congosorex phillipsorum) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains. 

The Udzungwa forest partridge (Xenoperdix udzungwensis) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains. 

The rufous-winged sunbird (Cinnyris rufipennis) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains. 

The Sanje dapple-throat (Arcanator orostruthus sanjei) is a type of passerine bird confined to a few forested areas on the Udzungwa Escarpment. 

The spiny-sided chameleon (Trioceros laterispinis) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains. 

The Magombera single-horned chameleon (Kinyongia magomberae) is confined to the Mwanihana and Magombera Forests, Udzungwa Mountains. 

The Udzungwa long-tailed seps (Tetradactylus udzungwensis) is a type of lizard known only from the Gendawaki Valley in the Udzungwa Mountains. 

The Udzungwa skink (Leptosiaphos rhomboidalis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1989 in the Mwanihana Forest, Udzungwa Mountains National Park. 

Three species of tree toad (Nectophrynoides) are endemic to the Udzungwa Mountains, where they are seriously threatened by loss of habitat. Poynton’s tree toad (N. poyntoni) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve in 2003. It has not been recorded since despite targeted searches, and may be extinct. The Kihansi tree toad (N. asperginis) was historically known only from a small area around Kihansi Falls, in the Kihansi Gorge, Udzungwa Mountains. Extinct in the wild after 2009 owing to the construction of a dam, it fortunately survived in captivity and attempts have since been made to try and reintroduce it with the help of artificial sprinkler systems. The Udzungwa Scarp tree toad (N. wendyae) is known only from a single valley within the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve. 

The Udzungwa leaf-folding frog (Afrixalus morerei) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains. 

Keith’s striped frog (Phlyctimantis keithae) is confined to the area of the Kigogo Forest Reserve, in the southern Udzungwa Mountains. 

The Udzungwa reed frog (Hyperolius kihangensis) is confined to the Udzungwa Mountains. 

The Mafinga puddle frog (Phrynobatrachus breviceps) is known only from a single locality on the Udzungwa Plateau. 

The Southern Highlands

The Southern Highlands are a group of plateaus and volcanic mountains located in south-western Tanzania, on the northern end of Lake Malawi. 

Matilda’s bush viper (Atheris matildae) is known only from a single montane forest fragment within the Southern Highlands, the precise location of which is being withheld by conservationists for its security. 

The Livingstone Mountains

The Livingstone Mountains (known locally as the Kipengere Range) are a plateau-like ridge located in south-western Tanzania (Njombe and Mbeya regions). The northern end of the range is also known as the Poroto Mountains, while more southerly areas are referred to as the Kinga Mountains. 

The overlooked screeching frog (Arthroleptis kutogundua) is known only from its original collection in 1930 from the Ngozi Crater. The species is most likely extinct due to loss of habitat. 

Davenport’s reed frog (Hyperolius davenporti) is known from a single locality in the Sakara Nyumo Forest Reserve of the Livingstone Mountains, where it is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction. 

The Mulanje Massif

The Mulanje Massif is located in south-eastern Malawi (Southern region). It rises sharply from the surrounding plains and features many individual peaks reaching over 2500 m. Much of the massif consists of rolling grassland intersected by deep forested ravines. It is protected by the Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve. 

The Mulanje chameleon (Nadzikambia mlanjensis) is known only from the Mulanje Massif. 

The Mulanje pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon platyceps) is found only in mid- to high-elevation forest fragments of Mount Mulanje and adjacent Mount Mchese. 

Broadley’s mongrel frog (Nothophryne broadleyi) is confined to the Mulanje Massif. 

The Mulanje river frog (Amietia johnstoni) is confined to the high plateau of the Mulanje Massif.

The Eastern Highlands

The Eastern Highlands (also known as the Manica Highlands) are a mountainous area located in eastern Zimbabwe (Manicaland province) and west-central Mozambique (Manica province). They are comprised of three main mountain groups: the Nyanga Mountains, the Bvumba Mountains, and the Chimanimani Mountains, all of which are sparsely populated and covered by grasslands and forest patches. They include the important Chirinda Forest of eastern Zimbabwe, the southernmost tropical rainforest in Africa. 

The Chirinda veld rat (Aethomys silindensis) is known only from three localities within the Eastern Highlands. 

The Eastern Highlands Swynnerton’s robin (Swynnertonia swynnertoni swynnertoni) is confined to the Chirinda Forest and a few other tiny forest patches on the Zimbabwe/ Mozambique border. 

Marshall’s pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon marshalli) is confined to forest fragments within the Eastern Highlands. 

The Rhodesian big-fingered frog (Probreviceps rhodesianus) is known only from three isolated localities in eastern Zimbabwe. 

The Eastern Highlands stream frog (Strongylopus rhodesianus) is confined to a few scattered localities. 

The Nyanga Mountains

The Nyanga Mountains are located in eastern Zimbabwe and south-western Mozambique. 

Arend’s golden mole (Carpitalpa arendsi) is confined to the Nyanga Mountains. 

The Nyanga river frog (Amietia inyangae) is known only from two localities in the Nyanga Mountains.

Mount Nyangani (formerly Mount Inyangani) is the highest mountain in Zimbabwe. It is located within Nyanga National Park. 

The Nyangani toad (Vandijkophrynus inyangae) is known only from the plateau on Mount Nyangani. 

The Chimanimani Mountains

The Chimanimani Mountains are located in eastern Zimbabwe and south-western Mozambique. 

The cave screeching frog (Arthroleptis troglodytes) is confined to the Chimanimani Mountains. Last recorded in 1962 and thought to be extinct, it was rediscovered in small numbers in 2016. 

The Central Plateau

The Central Plateau is a highland area dominating much of southern Africa in South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zambia, Angola, and Namibia. It is characterized mainly by highveld (high-elevation grassland). 

The southern bald ibis (Geronticus calvus) is confined to the Central Plateau in north-eastern South Africa, Lesotho, and western Swaziland. It is threatened by habitat destruction and human interference with its breeding colonies. 

The giant spiny-tailed lizard (Smaug giganteus) is confined to highveld grasslands of north-eastern South Africa (northern Free State and south-western Mpumalanga). 

The Snow Mountains adder (Bitis inornata) is known only from a small area of montane grassland in south-central South Africa (Eastern Cape). 

Breyer’s long-tailed seps (Tetradactylus breyeri) is a snakelike lizard that was historically widespread in the montane and highveld grasslands of north-eastern South Africa, but is now confined to a few disjunct populations in Mpumalanga, Free State, and KwaZulu-Natal. 

The Great Escarpment

The Great Escarpment consists of the steep slopes from the high Central Plateau downwards in the direction of the oceans that surround southern Africa on three sides. While it lies predominantly within the borders of South Africa, in the east it extends northwards to eastern Zambia and in the west into southern Namibia. 

Gunning’s golden mole (Neamblysomus gunningi) and Juliana’s golden mole (N. julianae) are both known only from a few localities in north-eastern South Africa, where they are threatened by loss of habitat. 

The long-toed forest tree frog (Leptopelis xenodactylus) is confined to a few upland bogs, grassy wetlands, and marshes in south-eastern South Africa (southern KwaZulu-Natal). 

Two species of chirping frog (Anhydrophryne) endemic to the Great Escarpment are threatened by loss of habitat. The Hogsback chirping frog (A. rattrayi) is known only from the Amathole, Katberg, and Keiskammahoek mountains of southeastern South Africa (Eastern Cape). The mistbelt chirping frog (A. ngongoniensis) is known only from a few localities in eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). 

The Drakensberg (Drakensberge in Afrikaans; uKhahlamba in Zulu) is the name given to the eastern portion of the Great Escarpment in eastern South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu- Natal, Limpopo, and Free State) and Lesotho. 

The robust golden mole (Amblysomus robustus) is known only from a few localities within the Drakensberg. 

Rudd’s lark (Heteromirafra ruddi) is confined to two main areas of high-altitude grassland, where it is declining due to loss of habitat. 

Botha’s lark (Spizocorys fringillaris) is confined to a few areas of southern Mpumalanga and eastern Free State, where the total population in 2019 was estimated at 1500–5000. 

The yellow-breasted pipit (Hemimacronyx chloris) is a rare bird species confined to eastern South Africa and Lesotho. 

Methuen’s dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus methueni) is known only from a few areas of montane grassland in north-eastern South Africa (southern Limpopo). 

Eastwood’s longtailed seps (Tetradactylus eastwoodae) was a type of lizard known only from two specimens collected in the early twentieth century. Its montane grassland habitat has long since been eradicated, and it is now thought to be extinct.

The woodbush legless skink (Acontias rieppeli) is confined to a small area of north-eastern South Africa (Limpopo). 

The Amatola or Amathole Mountains are a range of densely forested mountains located in south-eastern coastal South Africa (Eastern Cape). They form a part of the southern portion of the Great Escarpment. 

The Amatola toad (Vandijkophrynus amatolicus) is known only from the Winterberg and Amatola Mountains, although it has not been reported from the former since the 1970s. 

The Cape Fold Mountains

The Cape Fold Mountains form a series of parallel ranges that run along the south-western and southern coastlines of South Africa for some 850 km. 

The long-tailed forest shrew (Myosorex longicaudatus) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (M. l. longicaudatus) is confined to a small area of the Cape Fold Mountains in southern South Africa (Western Cape and Eastern Cape), where it is threatened by loss of habitat. 

Smith’s dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion taeniabronchum) is confined to a few disjunct localities within the Elandsberg and Kareedouw mountains of southern South Africa (Eastern Cape), as well as an additional wetland area near Cape St. Francis. The species may have been historically widespread in the lowlands, from where it has been extirpated. 

Rose’s mountain toadlet (Capensibufo rosei) is confined to a few, mainly higher-elevation fynbos heathland localities in south-western South Africa (Western Cape). 

The northern moss frog (Arthroleptella subvoce) is known only from three localities within the Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area in south-western South Africa (Western Cape). The rough moss frog (A. rugosa) is confined to a single inselberg in south-western South Africa (Western Cape). 

Hewitt’s ghost frog (Heleophryne hewitti) is known only from a few localities within the Elandsberg and Cockscomb mountains of south-eastern South Africa (Eastern Cape). 

The Hottentots Holland Mountains

The Hottentots Holland Mountains are located in southwestern South Africa (Western Cape). 

The dwarf crag lizard (Hemicordylus nebulosus) is confined to higher elevations of the Hottentots Holland Mountains. 

The Langeberg Mountains

The Langeberg Mountains are located in south-western South Africa (Western Cape). 

The Langeberg long-tailed forest shrew (Myosorex longicaudatus boosmai) is confined to the Langeberg Mountains. Table Mountain 

Table Mountain is located near Cape Town, south-western South Africa (Western Cape). 

The Table Mountain ghost frog (Heleophryne rosei) is confined to the southern, eastern, and marginally western slopes of Table Mountain. 

The Angolan Highlands

The Angolan Highlands are located just inwards from the coast in eastern Angola. They encompass some of the highest mountains in the country along with a few outlying inselbergs, remnants of the Great Escarpment from a time when it was more extensive. 

The heather shrew (Crocidura erica) is known only from western Angola. 

Swierstra’s francolin (Pternistis swierstrai) is a partridgelike bird confined to a few montane forest patches. 

Two species of bush shrike (Laniarius) endemic to the Angolan Highlands are threatened by loss of habitat. Braun’s bush shrike (L. brauni) is known only from a very small area of north-western Angola (Cuanza Norte province). The Gabela bush shrike (L. amboimensis) is a rare species from central-western Angola. 

Pulitzer’s longbill (Macrosphenus pulitzeri) is a warblerlike bird confined to the Angolan Highlands. 

The Gabela akalat (Sheppardia gabela) is a type of flycatcher known only from a few forest patches on the escarpement of central-western Angola. 

The Congulu forest tree frog (Leptopelis jordani) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1934 from centralwestern Angola (Cuanza Sul province).

The Quissange forest tree frog (Leptopelis marginatus) is known only from a single (now lost) specimen collected in 1895 from Benguela province. The taxonomic validity of both species, however, has been questioned. 

Parker’s white-lipped frog (Amnirana parkeriana) is known only from a small area of the northern Angolan Highlands. 

Miscellaneous Mountains and Highlands

The Nyika Plateau is located mainly in northern Malawi, with a small portion in north-eastern Zambia.

The Nyika burrowing shrew (Myosorex gnoskei) is endemic to the Nyika Plateau within Nyika National Park, Malawi. 

The Njesi Plateau is located in north-western Mozambique (Niassa province).

The Njesi forest warbler (Artisornis sousae) is confined to the Njesi Plateau, where the total population is very small. 

The Namuli Massif is located in northern Mozambique (Zambézia province). It consists of a level plateau with the granite dome of Mount Namuli rising above. Historically clad in tropical rainforest and still an important biodiversity hotspot, the lower slopes have now been mostly converted to agriculture.

Vincent’s bush squirrel (Paraxerus vincenti) is known only from Mount Namuli. 

Mount Chiperone is located in northern Mozambique (Zambézia province).

The Chiperone pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon nebulauctor) is confined to montane forest on Mount Chiperone. 

Mount Mabu is located in northern Mozambique (Zambézia province). It is well-known for the Mabu Forest, which is perhaps the largest remaining mid-altitude rainforest in Africa.

The Mabu pygmy chameleon (Nadzikambia baylissi) is confined to Mount Mabu. 

Mount Inago is located in northern Mozambique (Nampula province).

The Inago pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon bruessoworum) is known only from Mount Inago. 

Mount Ribáuè is located in northern Mozambique (Nampula province). It consists of two narrow inselbergs (the other being Mount M’pàluwé) separated by a narrow valley.

The Ribáuè mongrel frog (Nothophryne ribauensis) is confined to Mount Ribáuè. 

Mount Gorongosa is an inselberg located in central Mozambique (Sofala province). While nominally protected within Gorongosa National Park most of its montane forest has been destroyed, with only fragments now remaining.

The Gorongosa pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon gorongosae) is confined to Mount Gorongosa. 

The Natundu Hills are located in southernmost Malawi. 

Chapman’s pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon chapmanorum) is confined to forest fragments in the Natundu Hills. 

The Lebombo Mountains (sometimes called the Lubombo Mountains) are a narrow, 800-km-long range in South Africa, Mozambique, and Swaziland.

Marley’s golden mole (Amblysomus marleyi) is known only from two localities (Ubombo and Ingwavuma) on the eastern slopes of the Lebombo Mountains in KwaZulu-Natal. 

Gallery Forests

Gallery forests are tropical forests that grow along rivers or wetlands, sometimes extending far from the banks and projecting into landscapes that are otherwise only sparsely treed such as savannas, grasslands or deserts. 

Ansell’s shrew (Crocidura ansellorum) is known only from a few specimens collected from north-western Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo. 

The Vilhena’s reed frog (Hyperolius vilhenai) is known only its original collection in the 1960s from gallery forests along the Luita River in north-eastern Angola. Five additional specimens have since been obtained from Cangandala National Park some 350 km to the south-west, which have been provisionally assigned to this species. 

The Tana River Forest

The Tana River in south-eastern Kenya still has remnant patches of gallery forest along its lower course. Long isolated by heavy deforestation in the surrounding areas, they have effectively ‘trapped’ a number of unique species (in particular primates) and now provide a last refuge for them. In 1976, in deference to their extreme importance, these forests were set aside as the Tana River Primate National Reserve. Unfortunately, a legal challenge resulted in the reserve being degazetted in 2007. 

The Tana River mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus) is endemic to gallery forests along the lower Tana River. Cultivation in the region has long since eliminated most of the forests, forcing the species to withdraw to forest patches, where they continue to be subject to intensive trapping. In 1994 the total population was estimated at between 1000 and 1200. 

The Tana River red colobus (Piliocolobus rufomitratus) has a similar history and range, with a total population in 2003 of 1100–1300 (down from 1200–1800 in 1975). 

The Tana River cisticola (Cisticola restrictus) is a passerine bird known only from a small number of specimens, all collected within the lower Tana River drainage. It was last seen in 1972. 

The Tana River white-winged apalis (Apalis chariessa chariessa) was a type of passerine bird known only from the lower Tana River, where it was last observed in 1961. 

Coastal Moist Forests

A strip of moist tropical as well as subtropical lowland forests extends along Africa’s Indian Ocean coast from southern Somalia to southern South Africa. Taken together they are among the most biologically important and threatened in the African Region. 

East African Coastal Forests

The East African coastal forests are a tropical moist forest region located in a narrow band along the Indian Ocean coast from southern Somalia in the north, through coastal Kenya and Tanzania to just north of the mouth of the Limpopo River in southern Mozambique. It also includes the Zanzibar Archipelago, here treated in a separate section. The region has been heavily impacted by deforestation. The Arabuko Sokoke Forest, located on the central coast of Kenya, is the only remaining, larger coastal forest in East Africa. It is nominally protected within the Arabuko-Sokoke National Forest Reserve, a small portion of which is further set aside as a national park. 

Ader’s duiker (Cephalophus adersi) was long thought to be endemic to the island of Zanzibar, until found to occur as well in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest on the coast of Kenya. In recent years populations have been discovered in other coastal forest pockets in Kenya and Tanzania and the total population is believed to be fairly large. The species remains threatened, however, by loss of habitat, predation by feral dogs and hunting. 

The Sokoke dog mongoose (Bdeogale omnivora) appears to be mostly or entirely confined to the coastal forests of southeastern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania. 

The golden-rumped elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus) occurs in the Arabuko Sokoke Forest and a few other small coastal forests fragments in south-eastern Kenya. 

The Tanzanian woolly bat (Kerivoula africana) is known only from a few localities in coastal Tanzania, where it was long thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 2000. It is threatened by loss of habitat and capture for use in ‘traditional medicine’.

The Dar-es-salaam pipistrelle bat (Pipistrellus permixtus) is known only from a single specimen collected from coastal forest in Tanzania in the 1950s. 

The Kenyan wattled bat (Glauconycteris kenyacola) is known only from a single locality in coastal south-eastern Kenya (former Coast province). 

Hildegarde’s tomb bat (Taphozous hildegardeae) is a cavedependant species known only from a few localities along the coast of south-eastern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania, including the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. 

The Sokoke scops owl (Otus ireneae) is known only from Arabuko-Sokoke Forest of south-eastern Kenya and from the lowlands of the East Usambara Mountains in northeastern Tanzania. 

Fischer’s spotted ground thrush (Geokichla guttata fischeri) is confined to the coastal forests of Kenya and Tanzania, where it is rare and decreasing. 

Clarke’s weaver (Ploceus golandi) is a type of passerine bird known only from a few localities in south-eastern Kenya. 

Günther’s house gecko (Hemidactylus modestus) is known only from a few coastal forest fragments in south-eastern Kenya, where it has not been recorded in several decades. 

The Dar-es-Salaam dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus inexpectatus) is known only from the Dar-es-Salaam area of Tanzania, where it has not been recorded since its original description in the mid-twentieth century. 

The sandy limbless skink (Scolecoseps acontias) is known for certain only from a single, now lost specimen collected in 1913 from central coastal Tanzania. 

The Kilwa sharp-snouted worm lizard (Ancylocranium ionidesi) is known only from a few localities in south-eastern Tanzania, including the Litipo Forest Reserve. 

The Tanga blind snake (Afrotyphlops platyrhynchus) is known only from its original collection from a single locality in extreme north-eastern Tanzania in the early twentieth century. 

The Mbanja worm snake (Leptotyphlops mbanjensis) is known only from five specimens collected from extreme south-eastern Tanzania. 

Schiotz’s leaf-folding frog (Afrixalus sylvaticus) is found patchily in coastal south-eastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania. 

The Ruvu reed frog (Hyperolius ruvuensis) is known only from the Ruvu South Forest Reserve in eastern Tanzania. The Shimba Hills reed frog (H. rubrovermiculatus) is confined to the Shimba Hills of coastal south-eastern Kenya. 

Lonnberg’s screeching frog (Arthroleptis lonnbergi) is known for certain only from lowland forests in eastern and north-eastern Tanzania. 

The Zanzibar puddle frog (Phrynobatrachus ungujae) is known only from the Jozani Forest on Zanzibar and from the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in south-eastern Kenya. 

The Litopo Forest

The Litipo Forest is located in coastal Tanzania. 

The Litipo sand skink (Scolecoseps litipoensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Litipo Forest in 1993. 

South-East African Coastal Forests

The South-East African coastal forests are a tropical moist forest region running along a narrow band from central coastal Mozambique to south-eastern South Africa. 

The Knysna warbler (Bradypterus sylvaticus) is confined to remnant coastal forest patches of the Eastern and Western Cape of South Africa. The total population is thought to be around 2500. 

The South African spotted ground thrush (Geokichla guttata guttata) is confined to Eastern Cape province (possibly extending into a small area of KwaZulu-Natal), where in 2005 the total population was estimated at less than 300 pairs. 

The Transkei dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion caffer) is confined to a small area of coastal forest in Eastern Cape province. 

Günther’s dwarf burrowing skink (Scelotes guentheri) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1886 from KwaZulu-Natal. It is considered to be extinct, a victim of habitat destruction. The legless dwarf burrowing skink (S. inornatus) is known only from a few localities along a small stretch of coast near Durban in KwaZulu-Natal, where it is seriously threatened. 

The Knysna leaf-folding frog (Afrixalus knysnae) is confined to a few areas of Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces. 

The Kloof frog (Natalobatrachus bonebergi) is confined to a few lowland forest patches in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces.

Lowland Mediterranean Forest (Fynbos)

Fynbos, which means ‘fine-leaved plants’ in Afrikaans, is a small belt of maquis-like shrubland and heathland located in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa (roughly from north of Cape Town to Port Elizabeth). Two types are recognized: lowland fynbos (i.e. areas below 300 m) and montane fynbos, which is discussed separately in the mountains section. Known for its exceptional degree of biodiversity and endemism, lowland fynbos in particular has long been under threat by introduced plant species and coastal development. 

The geometric tortoise (Psammobates geometricus), one of Africa’s rarest reptiles, was thought to have become extinct about 1910, but in 1946–47 and 1958 specimens were obtained north and east of Cape Town. Today it is entirely confined to two small protected areas, although drought, grass fires, and illegal capture for the pet trade remain serious threats. It has never successfully reproduced in captivity. 

The western leopard toad (Sclerophrys pantherina) is confined to a few lowland areas of the Cape Peninsula, the Cape Flats, and the Agulhas Flats in south-western South Africa (Western Cape). It is threatened mainly by loss of habitat and road kill. 

The Cape Flats frog (Microbatrachella capensis) occurs only in the coastal lowlands of south-western Western Cape province. 

Lowland Tropical and Subtropical Savannas

Areas of lowland tropical and subtropical savannas, often interspersed with woodlands of varying type, occur throughout the African Region. During the pluvial periods of the Ice Age great forests spread over wide areas of Africa now covered by savannas, but evidently there were sufficiently large open areas during these forested periods to allow savanna species to survive in unparalleled variety. After the last ice sheet had melted from the Northern Hemisphere, a new dry period began in Africa, and about 20,000 years ago the savannas started increasing in area. Only a century or two ago, the mighty savannas of Africa provided scenes that we today find difficult to visualize. Numerous species of large and small antelopes, mixed with giraffes, buffaloes, rhinoceroses, and elephants, lived on the various kinds of savannas. These plains were regions of biological equilibrium, highly productive climax areas created by Nature herself through countless ages. In this highly specialized ecological system, each organism was a necessary element in its perpetuation. Different animal species made efficient use of the whole array of available niches within the habitat. The various species of hoofed animals grazed and browsed together, choosing different kinds of bulbs, grass, twigs, leaves, and fruits as food. Selection had eliminated competition, and in this way the effect of grazing was evenly distributed. With exceptions for species such as common eland (Tragelaphus oryx), Beisa oryx (Oryx beisa), impala (Aepyceros melampus), gerenuk (Litocranius walleri), Grant’s gazelle (Nanger granti), and Thomson’s gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii), which need little or no water, herds congregated on the savanna regions around lakes, rivers, springs, and small water holes, for not many savanna species can live for long periods without water. During dry periods most of these hoofed animals moved to other regions that had recently had rain and where the grass was plentiful and green. And so it went, all year round. The hoofed animals followed the rain, changing pastures regularly, and as a consequence the grazing never destroyed the vegetation, which after the next rainy period was as fresh and green as ever. 

The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is the world’s tallest living land mammal, with fully grown adults standing between 4.3 and 5.7 m in height (although the tallest male ever recorded was just under 5.9 m). Despite many independent studies indicating multiple forms there is as yet no general agreement on the taxonomy, and so for the purposes of this website we shall consider it to be a single species with nine subspecies. These gentle creatures remain widespread in savanna woodlands across eastern and southern Africa, with smaller, isolated populations in western and central Africa, but are now increasingly threatened everywhere by hunting (both legal and illegal) for meat and trophies. The Nubian giraffe (G. c. camelopardalis) is found in eastern South Sudan and south-western Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda, where around 2150 are thought to remain in the wild. A distinct ecotype known as ‘Rothschild’s giraffe’ may be included with this form. The latter lives in parts of Kenya and Uganda, where the wild population is around 1500, although there are several hundred in captivity. The Kordofan giraffe (G. c. antiquorum) is found in southern Chad, the Central African Republic, northern Cameroon, and north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Some 2000 remain in the wild. The reticulated giraffe (G. c. reticulata) occurs in north-eastern Kenya, south-eastern Ethiopia, and south-western Somalia. An estimated 8660 remain in the wild, with an additional 450 in captivity. The Namibian giraffe (G. c. angolensis) is found in northern Namibia, south-western Zambia, Botswana, and western Zimbabwe, where the total population is estimated at around 13,000. The Masai giraffe (G. c. tippelskirchi) ranges in central and southern Kenya and Tanzania, where a total of 32,550 are thought to remain. The Luangwa giraffe (G. c. thornicrofti) is confined to the Luangwa Valley in eastern Zambia, where there are no more than 550 remaining. Finally, the Niger giraffe (G. c. peralta) is found only in south-western Niger, where just 400 survive. 

The white or square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), one of the largest and heaviest of terrestrial land mammals, is divided into two subspecies. The northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) is, at time of writing, functionally extinct, with only two females remaining. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the form was widely but discontinuously distributed in parts of what is now north-western Uganda, southern Chad, south-western Sudan, eastern Central African Republic, and north-eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Long persecuted by trophy hunters, by the early twentieth century it had already all but disappeared everywhere except in Sudan, where it enjoyed strict protection, and in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, which had been specially created for it in 1938. The rhinos held out in both areas for the next few decades, but endless civil war combined with poaching for its horns ultimately wiped it out in both countries. The last wild individual was reported in Garamba in 2006. The last four survivors, all zoo captives, were ultimately brought together and returned to Africa in an expensive and ultimately misguided attempt at semi-reintroduction on a private reserve in Kenya, where the only male, ‘Sudan’, died in 2017. The southern white rhinoceros (C. s. simum) was and remains the most widespread, living as it does in the grasslands of central and southern Africa. Long a favourite target for trophy hunters, by the early twentieth century it was nearly wiped out, with less than 20 remaining and all living on a single reserve in South Africa. From this tiny remnant it has since made a remarkable comeback, reaching 1000 by the 1980s. As of 2015 the population stands at around 20,000, making it by far the most abundant rhino in the world, although the animals remain vulnerable to poaching and loss of habitat. There is a large captive population, and many reintroductions within the historical range have taken place or are planned. 

The black or hook-lipped rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), previously discussed, was historically divided into several subspecies within the African Region. The now-extinct northeastern black rhinoceros (D. b. brucii) lived in central Sudan, Eritrea, northern and south-eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti, and northern and south-eastern Somalia. The last relict populations in northern Somalia vanished sometime during the early twentieth century. Of the surviving forms the south-central black rhinoceros (D. b. minor) is the most widely distributed, historically being found from north-eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) to north-eastern Tanzania and south-eastern Kenya. It survives in protected areas throughout most of its former range, but has probably been extirpated in eastern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and possibly Mozambique. It was formerly extirpated in Malawi, Botswana, and Zambia as well, but has since been reintroduced. The eastern black rhinoceros (D. b. michaeli) was historically distributed from South Sudan, Uganda, and Ethiopia down through Kenya into north-central Tanzania. Today, its range is limited primarily to Kenya and Tanzania. The Ugandan black rhinoceros (D. b. ladoensis) was formerly found from South Sudan, across Uganda into western Kenya and southwesternmost Ethiopia. Black rhinos are considered to be extirpated across most of this area and their conservation status is unclear, although they probably survive in small numbers in Kenyan reserves. The south-western black rhinoceros (D. b. occidentalis) is a notably small subspecies adapted to survival in desert and semi-desert conditions. Originally distributed in north-western Namibia and south-western Angola, today it is restricted to wildlife reserves in Namibia, with sporadic sightings in Angola. The Chobe black rhinoceros (D. b. chobiensis) is restricted to the Chobe Valley in south-eastern Angola, the Zambezi region of Namibia, and (at least formerly) northern Botswana. 

The secretary bird (Sagittarius serpentarius) is a large, mainly terrestrial bird of prey found over most of sub- Saharan Africa outside the rainforest belt, but has declined in many areas due to loss of habitat and hunting. 

Lowland Tropical Savannas

Areas of lowland tropical savanna, ranging from sparsely wooded grassland areas to open savanna dotted with acacias, are to be found across north-central, south-central, and eastern Africa. 

Hunter’s antelope or hirola (Beatragus hunteri), one of the world’s rarest antelopes, is confined to the border area of south-eastern Kenya and south-western Somalia. The wild population is estimated at 300–500 and declining, and there are none in captivity. 

The hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) is a large antelope that has been extensively hunted for both food and sport. Swayne’s hartebeest (A. b. swaynei) formerly occurred across the southern Rift Valley. It disappeared from Somaliland (north-western Somalia) in the early twentieth century due to rinderpest, and has since been effectively restricted to two sites in Ethiopia (Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary and Maze National Park). Reintroductions have been attempted in Awash and Nech Sar national parks, but without success. In 2008 the total population was estimated at less than 800. The tora hartebeest (A. b. tora) formerly occurred in western and southwestern Eritrea, north-western Ethiopia, and the adjacent border regions of Sudan (where it is now definitely extinct). Small numbers may survive in Eritrea or Ethiopia, but there have been no records since the 1990s and the subspecies is possibly extinct. The lelwel hartebeest (A. b. lelwel) is a large antelope that was historically found primarily in the Central African Republic, south-western Ethiopia, in northern and north-eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Sudan, and the north-western extreme of Tanzania. A massive population decline since the 1980s has resulted in most individuals now being confined to protected areas both inside and outside this range (southern Chad and northern Uganda). 

The tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus) is a type of large, social antelope found in pockets across sub-Saharan Africa outside the rainforest belt. A few subspecies are considered threatened due to displacement by cattle and uncontrolled hunting for meat. The korrigum (D. l. korrigum) historically occurred from southern Mauritania and Senegal to western Chad, but underwent a dramatic decline during the twentieth century. It is now extirpated in Mauritania, Mali, Senegal, and The Gambia, and most likely from Nigeria and Chad as well except as vagrants. The coastal topi (D. l. topi) is known from southern Somalia within the riverine grasslands of the lower Shebelle and Jubba rivers and in parts of northern Kenya. 

Haggard’s oribi (Ourebia ourebi haggardi) is a type of small antelope confined to coastal savannas of southern Somalia and northern Kenya. It has long been threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. 

The Somali gerbil (Ammodillus imbellis) is known only from a few specimens collected from Somalia and southeastern Ethiopia. 

The Somali golden mole (Calcochloris tytonis) is known only from a single specimen (partial owl pellet remains) collected near Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1964. 

Johnston’s African dormouse (Graphiurus johnstoni) is confined to the savanna woodlands of southern Malawi and possibly adjacent areas of Zambia and Zimbabwe. 

The dusky elephant shrew (Elephantulus fuscus) is known only from a handful of specimens collected from southern Zambia, Malawi, and south-western Mozambique. All but one were obtained prior to 1968. The dusky-footed elephant shrew (E. fuscipes) is known only from a handful of specimens, all obtained prior to 1968, from southern South Sudan, northwestern Uganda and north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. 

Fischer’s shrew (Crocidura fischeri) is known only from two localities in southern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania. 

Vinson’s slit-faced bat (Nycteris vinsoni) is known only from two specimens smoked out of a baobab tree in the mid- 1960s in southern Mozambique. 

The Zambian barbet (Lybius chaplini) is a type of bird confined to a small area of south-central Zambia, where it is threatened by loss of habitat. 

Friedmann’s lark (Mirafra pulpa) is a rare species known only from a small number of specimens collected in three disjunct areas of central and southern Kenya, south-western Ethiopia, and north-eastern Tanzania. 

Parker’s house gecko (Hemidactylus megalops) is known only from its original collection in Somalia in the early 1930s. 

Grandison’s dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus grandisonae) is known only from a few specimens collected from a single locality on the Kenya/Ethiopia border. The angulated dwarf gecko (L. grzimeki) is known only from a few specimens collected from Lake Manyara National Park in northcentral Tanzania. 

The imperial flat lizard (Platysaurus imperator) is confined to a small area of savanna in north-western Mozambique and north-eastern Zimbabwe. 

The Caprivi rough-scaled lizard (Ichnotropis grandiceps) is a rare species known only from the Caprivi Strip of northeastern Namibia and adjacent north-western Botswana. 

Chelazzi’s garter snake (Elapsoidea chelazzii) is known only from a small area of dry open woodland in southern Somalia. 

Parker’s worm snake (Leptotyphlops parkeri) is known only from two specimens collected many decades ago from two widely separated localities (the northern Ogaden region of Ethiopia and Tsavo National Park in Kenya). 

The Nairobi toad (Mertensophryne nairobiensis) is confined to a small area of savanna woodland in southcentral Kenya. 

The Bata marsh toad (Sclerophrys chudeaui) is known only from its original collection in the early twentieth century from an undefined locality in Mali. The Merera toad (S. reesi) is known only from a few specimens collected from south-central Tanzania. 

The Mossamedes toad (Poyntonophrynus grandisonae) is known only from a few specimens collected in south-western Angola (Namibe province). 

The Mapacha ridged frog (Ptychadena mapacha) is known only from the eastern Caprivi Strip in north-eastern Namibia, but likely also occurs in south-western Zambia, south-eastern Angola, and northern Botswana. 

The Masiliwa shovel-nosed frog (Hemisus brachydactylus) is known only from its original collection in the 1960s from an undefined locality in central Tanzania. De Witte’s shovelnosed frog (H. wittei) is known only from south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and north-eastern Zambia. 

The Mongu shovel-nosed frog (H. barotseensis) is known only from the Barotse Floodplain along the Zambezi River in central-western Zambia. 

Miombo Woodlands

‘Miombo’ is the vernacular word for Brachystegia, a genus of tree comprising a large number of species notable for shedding their leaves during the dry season. Miombo woodlands are characterized by the predominance of these species. They form a broad belt across south-central Africa, running from Angola and the Republic of Congo through the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe to Malawi, Mozambique, and Tanzania. 

The giant sable antelope (Hippotragus niger variani) is confined to the region between the Luando and Cuanza rivers (and to an area immediately north of the Luando) in central Angola. In the late 1960s there were an estimated 2000–3000, but there was a great deal of uncertainty regarding its survival of the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002). However, in 2004 photographic evidence was obtained of a surviving herd in Cangandala National Park. Others were found, and in 2007 the total population was estimated at 200–400. Since then the subspecies has continued to be heavily hunted. Today there are perhaps 40 remaining in Cangandala, with a similar number in the Luando Reserve. 

D’Anchieta’s fruit bat (Plerotes anchietae) is known only from a few scattered localities in Angola, the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, and Zambia. 

Ansell’s epauletted fruit bat (Epomophorus anselli) is known only from Malawi, where it was collected in Kasungu National Park in the 1980s and from the Karonga area in 1961. 

The Sakeji horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus sakejiensis) is known only from its original collection in north-western Zambia. 

The Gabela helmet-shrike (Prionops gabela) was long known only from a small area near Gabela, in central coastal Angola. The species was unrecorded after the mid-1970s until 2003, when a few small flocks began to be discovered sporadically over a relatively wide but narrow belt of lowland dry forest. 

The black-tailed cisticola (Cisticola melanurus) is a rare type of warbler found in north-eastern Angola and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. 

The Tanzanian rough-scaled lizard (Ichnotropis tanganicana) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1917 from an undefined locality east of Lake Tanganyika in western Tanzania. 

The Katavi burrowing skink (Typhlacontias kataviensis) is known only from sandy ridges within Katavi National Park in south-eastern Tanzania. 

Mopane Scrub and Woodlands

Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), also known as balsam tree, butterfly tree, or turpentine tree, is a type of legume that grows in hot, dry, usually low-lying areas in the far northern parts of southern Africa. Varying in height between 4 and 18 m, its distinctive butterfly-shaped leaf and thin seed pod make it easy to identify. There are two main regions where mopane is the predominant vegetation, one in south-western Angola and northern Namibia and the other extending over the lowlands of the Zambezi River and its tributaries in Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, northern South Africa, and Swaziland. The plant is extensively used for firewood. 

The black-cheeked lovebird (Agapornis nigrigenis) is confined to a small area of south-western Zambia. 

Sudanian Savanna

Sudanian savanna is a broad belt of tropical savanna running east to west across Africa. It consists of two main regions separated by the Cameroon Highlands. 

West Sudanian Savanna runs from the Atlantic Ocean in southern Senegal and Gambia through south-western Mali, north-eastern Guinea, southern Burkina Faso, north-eastern Ivory Coast, northern Ghana, northern Togo, northern Benin, south-western Niger, and parts of Nigeria. 

The Takwashara worm lizard (Cynisca nigeriensis) is known only from a single locality in central Nigeria. 

Joger’s saw-scaled viper (Echis jogeri) is confined to southeastern Senegal and south-western Mali. 

The Gabou file snake (Mehelya gabouensis) is known only from two specimens collected in 1996 from south-western Senegal. 

The Senegal worm lizard (Cynisca senegalensis) is known only from Niokolo-Koba National Park in south-eastern Senegal. 

East Sudanian Savanna consists of two main blocks in east-central Africa. The western block covers portions of northern Cameroon, southernmost Chad, northern Central African Republic, and South Sudan. The eastern block lies in a belt stretching from northern Uganda along the Sudan/Ethiopia border region. Vegetation typically consists of deciduous Terminalia trees with an undergrowth of shrubs and a wide array of grasses. 

Hoogstraal’s striped grass mouse (Lemniscomys hoogstraali) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1961 from what is now north-eastern South Sudan. 

Flooded Tropical Grasslands

Important areas of flooded tropical grassland include the Okavango Delta in north-central Botswana, the Kafue Flats in central Zambia, and the Bangweulu Flats of northeastern Zambia. 

The Somali white-collared guenon (Cercopithecus albogularis zammaranoi) is confined to a small area of flooded grassland in southern Somalia along the Jubba and Shabelle rivers. 

The southern lechwe (Kobus leche) is a small, semi-aquatic antelope admirably adapted to the inundated flood plains and wetlands of south-central Africa. There are a number of isolated subspecies, two of which are now extinct and three others that are considered threatened. Roberts’ southern lechwe (K. l. robertsi) is believed to have been restricted to the Luongo and Kalungwishi drainage systems of the lower Luapula River of north-eastern Zambia, where it has been extinct for decades. The Cape southern lechwe (K. l. venterae) is a poorly known and somewhat controversial form, variously considered either as a species in its own right or not recognized as distinct at all. However it is to be classified, the population occurred widely within suitable habitat in the North West, Gauteng, Free State, Northern Cape, and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. Long gone from these areas, it was first described by the paleontologist Robert Broom from a frontlet and horn core discovered from Haggenstad (now known as Florisbad). Another subspecies, the red southern lechwe (K. l. leche) is currently widespread and relatively common in the wetlands of Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia. 

Fox’s weaver (Ploceus spekeoides) is a colonial-breeding passerine bird known only from a small area of seasonally flooded grasslands in east-central Uganda. The Kilombero weaver (P. burnieri) is confined to a few areas within the Kilombero River floodplain in south-central Tanzania. Both are threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Waza running frog (Kassina wazae) is known only from a single ephemeral marsh within seasonally flooded grassland near Waza, in northern Cameroon. 

The Kafue Flats are a vast, seasonally inundated floodplain on the middle Kafue River located in central Zambia (Southern, Central, Western, and North-Western provinces). Some 240 km long and about 50 km wide, it floods to a depth of less than a metre during the rainy season (deeper in some lagoons and permanent swampy areas), drying out to a clayey black soil in the dry season. 

The Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) is confined to the Kafue Flats, where its population has been monitored for almost a century. From an estimated 250,000 in 1934 it was reduced to a low of around 25,000 by the 1960s, but increased once more to between 90,000 and 110,000 during the early 1970s. By the early 1980s the numbers had been reduced again to about 40,000–45,000, then increased gradually to 78,000 by the end of the twentieth century. At this point the population suddenly crashed, with just under 29,000 estimated in 2015. While poaching has been a factor in the decline, maintenance of a seasonal flooding regime is critically important to the survival of this subspecies. Water flow has been regulated almost completely in this region according to human needs since construction of hydroelectric dams in the 1970s, and significant alteration to the current hydrological status could prove catastrophic. 

The Kafue mole rat (Fukomys kafuensis) is known only from a small area of the Kafue Flats in Southern province. 

The Kafue worm lizard (Zygaspis kafuensis) is known only from a few specimens collected in the vicinity of the Kafue Flats. 

The Bangweulu Flats are an extensive wetland area located adjacent to Lake Bangweulu in north-eastern Zambia. 

The Bangweulu tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus superstes) is a type of antelope confined to the Bangweulu Flats. 

The black lechwe (Kobus leche smithemani) is today confined to the southern half of the Bangweulu Flats, although at one time it was also found on the Chambeshi floodplains along the upper Luapula between Zambia and south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, where it is unlikely to survive. In terms of population it has declined from about 150,000 in 1932 to no more than 4000 in 1966. By the early 1980s it had increased to around 40,000 but subsequently decreased to 30,000 by the end of that decade. Today the population is more or less stable at between 35,000 and 50,000. However, it remains vulnerable to poaching and is totally dependent on the maintenance of a favourable hydrological regime. 

Lowland Subtropical Grasslands and Savannas

Lowland subtropical grasslands and savannas are found patchily in Angola, northern and central Namibia, northern and eastern Botswana, southern Zambia, Zimbabwe, south-western Mozambique, and central and north-eastern South Africa. Historically they were much more extensive. When Europeans first began settling in southern Africa three and a half centuries ago, they gradually spread inland from the coast. There they found rich grasslands and a wealth of wild animals. Intensified farming and the raising of cattle and sheep led to the occupation of more land and the driving out of the wild mammals. The opening up of the country to settlers increased the demand for meat. Many men became professional hunters; others killed for fun. Hecatombs of wild mammals fell before their guns. The intensive exploitation of the land produced a serious decline in grass cover and soils along with the wildlife.

The southern or Cape black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis bicornis) was the largest black rhinoceros subspecies. Once abundant from the Cape of Good Hope to Transvaal, South Africa and probably into southern Namibia, it became extinct due to excessive hunting and habitat destruction around 1850.

The South African or Cape giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa) is found in northern South Africa, southern Botswana, southern Zimbabwe, and south-western Mozambique. A maximum of 31,500 are estimated in the wild. 

The Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) is found patchily in eastern and southern Africa, where it is threatened by habitat destruction, hunting, drought, and disease. 

The eastern and southern African populations of the African lion (Panthera leo) are nowadays included together as a distinct subspecies (P. l. melanochaita), where they live in a variety of habitats. The southernmost population, known as the Cape lion, inhabited South Africa’s Natal and Cape provinces. In the early nineteenth century lions still occurred in the karoo plains and in the northern Cape. The last individuals reported south of the Orange River were sighted between 1850 and 1858, but they may have survived in the northern Orange Free State into the 1860s. In any case they were soon wiped out by hunting. As with the Barbary lion population discussed earlier, it is possible that some zoo specimens with Cape lion ancestry may yet survive. 

The bluebuck (Hippotragus leucophaeus) was the first African antelope to be hunted to extinction by European settlers. Historically limited to a small area of what was then grassland on the south-western Cape coast, it first became known in 1719 at which time it was already rare. The last survivors were shot around 1800. Only four stuffed specimens are preserved in European museums. 

The bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus pygargus) is a beautiful antelope that was historically confined to the coastal plain of the Western Cape in South Africa, where overhunting reduced it from locally abundant to the verge of extinction. It was saved from extermination during the mid-nineteenth century by a few Cape farming families, who protected the small, remnant population living on the poor grazing lands where it had been driven. In 1931 Bontebok National Park was established near Bredasdorp, where the original stock of just 17 animals grew to 84 by 1960, at which point the animals were translocated to the more suitable site of the current Bontebok National Park near Swellendam. From there the population grew to 320 as of 1981. Numbers have since been maintained at around 250, with surplus individuals forming the nucleus of reintroduced populations in other protected areas and private farms. The total number of bontebok now stands at around 3500, though only about 1500 actually occur within the historical range. The largest subpopulation is in the De Hoop Nature Reserve and environs. Another subspecies, the blesbok (D. p. phillipsi), formerly lived in an area some 300 km north and east of the bontebok’s range in the highveld of Free State and Gauteng provinces, parts of KwaZulu-Natal, and the northern karoo in the Eastern and Northern Cape, South Africa. It was also present in western Lesotho and possibly Swaziland. Originally quite abundant, it too was decimated by overhunting and reduced to around 2000 by the late nineteenth century. It has since made a spectacular recovery, and has been translocated to private game farms throughout South Africa as well as in Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe. The bontebok and the blesbok are no longer considered threatened. 

The Cape wild dog (Lycaon pictus pictus) is found patchily in south-western Mozambique, south-eastern Zimbabwe, and north-eastern South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal). 

The rough-haired golden mole (Chrysospalax villosus) is known only from a few scattered localities in eastern and north-eastern South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng, and Mpumalanga). 

The white-chested tinkerbird (Pogoniulus makawai) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1964 from north-western Zambia. 

Steppe

Areas of lowland dry grassland within the African Region are to be found in a narrow band across the whole of northern Africa in northern Senegal, southern Mauritania, southcentral Mali, southern Niger, central Chad, and Sudan, with further areas within the Horn of Africa extending to Tanzania. Other pockets occur in Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa. 

The black-faced impala (Aepyceros melampus petersi) is confined to north-western Namibia and south-western Angola. Brockman’s gerbil (Gerbillus brockmani) is known only from its original collection in the early twentieth century from north-western Somalia. The Somali gerbil (G. somalicus) is known only from two historical records (north-western Somalia and Djibouti). 

The Somali elephant shrew (Galegeeska revoilii) was historically known only from northern Somalia, where it was last recorded after 1968 and thought to be extinct. A small population was rediscovered in Djibouti in 2020. 

The southern shield-backed lizard (Philochortus rudolfensis) is known only from five specimens collected in the early twentienth century from arid bushland areas of northern Kenya. 

Campbell’s girdled lizard (Namazonurus campbelli) is confined to a small area of south-central Namibia. 

Hughes’ saw-scaled viper (Echis hughesi) is known only from a single locality near the tip of the Horn of Africa in Somalia. 

The Somali snake (Aeluroglena cucullata) is known only from five specimens collected from northern Somalia. 

The Kenyan dwarf blind snake (Afrotyphlops nanus) is known only from its original collection during the nineteenth century from arid bushland in south-eastern Kenya. 

The Turkana toad (Sclerophrys turkanae) is known only from the south-eastern shores of Lake Turkana and from near the Ewaso Ng’iro River in northern and central Kenya. 

The Sahel

The Sahel is essentially a semi-arid transition zone between the Sahara Desert to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. It stretches across northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea, roughly in northern Senegal, southern Mauritania, central Mali, northern Burkina Faso, southern Niger, extreme northern Nigeria, extreme northern Cameroon, central Chad, Sudan, and Eritrea. 

The red-fronted gazelle (Eudorcas rufifrons) was historically common across the Sahel, but has now been reduced to scattered pockets due to hunting, competition with domestic livestock and habitat loss due to drought and clearance for agriculture. A number of ill-defined subspecies have been described, including the Senegal red-fronted gazelle (E. r. rufifrons), the eastern Chad red-fronted gazelle (E. r. centralis), the north Nigeria red-fronted gazelle (E. r. hasleri), the Kanuri red-fronted gazelle (E. r. kanuri), and the Nubian red-fronted gazelle (E. r. laevipes). The so-called Atlas red-fronted gazelle (E. r. rufina) is a rather mysterious form known only from three skins bought in Algeria toward the end of the nineteenth century. Never observed in the wild, it may have lived in mountainous forests of the Algerian– Moroccan border region and was said to be well-known to furriers in Oran. Variously treated either as a colour variation or subspecies of red-fronted gazelle (as here) or as a distinct species in its own right, the most plausible explanation is that the purchased skins had been transported to market from somewhere further south. 

Etheridge’s blind snake (Xerotyphlops etheridgei) is known only from a single locality in west-central Mauritania. 

Deserts and Semi-Deserts

Deserts, subdeserts, and arid scrubs cover about one-third of the continent of Africa. In the north, of course, there is the immense Sahara Desert, which is dealt with elsewhere. Apart from that there are the Namib and Kalahari deserts of the south-west, the karoo subdesert of the south, and the Danakil and other large deserts of the Horn of Africa. The man-made subdeserts of Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Lesotho, and elsewhere in the African Region are also included here. 

Karoo

The karoo is an ill-defined semi-desert area of south-western South Africa and southern Namibia. It is usually subdivided into the Great Karoo to the north of the Swartberg Mountains and Little Karoo to the south. The latter is separated from the sea by the east–west running Outeniqua–Langeberg Mountains. Characterized mainly by its low rainfall, the karoo region was once covered by grasslands but has expanded to its present size as a result of long overuse by sheep and goats. 

The riverine rabbit (Bunolagus monticularis) is a highly threatened species that inhabits the growth along seasonal river courses in the central karoo. The total population is thought to be less than 1500. 

Visagie’s golden mole (Chrysochloris visagiei) is known only from a single specimen collected from an area of Northern Cape province that has since been dramatically disrupted by agriculture. 

The ferruginous sand lark (Calendulauda burra) is a rare species confined to the karoo of western South Africa (Northern Cape). It is threatened by loss of habitat. 

The karoo dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion karrooicum) is confined to a small area of central South Africa (eastern Northern Cape and western Free State). 

The dwarf karoo girdled lizard (Cordylus aridus) is confined to a small area of the southern karoo in south-central South Africa (Western Cape). 

Fisk’s house snake (Lamprophis fiskii) is a little-known species from the south-western karoo, where it may be affected by habitat destruction. 

The Danakil Desert

The Danakil Desert lies in the Afar Triangle and covers northeastern Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, southern Djibouti ,and the north-westernmost part of Somalia. It is known for its active volcanoes and extreme heat. 

The Somali wild ass (Equus africanus somaliensis) was historically found in Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Djibouti, where it was considered common up to the mid-twentieth century. By 1980 it had been reduced to perhaps 6000 or 7000 living mainly in northern Somalia and the Danakil subdeserts and Awash basin of Ethiopia. As with the Nubian wild ass this sharp decline was due mainly to excessive hunting for its meat and hides (exacerbated by the endless warfare that has plagued this part of Africa since 1935), along with drought and the resulting competition for limited food and water from increasing numbers of livestock. Today there are thought to be only a few hundred wild asses living in the Ethiopia/Eritrea border region; its status (or even survival) in Somalia is unknown. Another 200 or so live in captivity.

The beira antelope (Dorcatragus megalotis) is a small species found only in the arid coastal areas of southern Djibouti, northern Somalia and, marginally, eastern Ethiopia (where it was last observed in 1972). Considered rare even at the time of its discovery in 1885, it has since suffered further declines due mainly to habitat destruction and competition with livestock. 

The Namib Desert

The Namib is a coastal desert that, according to its broadest definition, extends for some 2000 km along the Atlantic coasts of southern Angola and of Namibia, along with a small area of adjacent western South Africa. Its northernmost portion, located along the Angola–Namibia border, is known as the Moçâmedes Desert, while its southern portern approaches the neighbouring Kalahari. Having endured arid or semi-arid conditions for roughly 55–80 million years it may be the oldest desert in the world, and contains some of its driest regions. It remains almost completely untouched by humans. 

The Nama dwarf tortoise (Chersobius solus) has a very restricted distribution in the extreme deserts of southern Namibia, but is not currently thought to be threatened beyond occasional collection for the international pet trade. 

The Namaqua dwarf adder (Bitis schneideri), perhaps the world’s smallest viper, is confined to the coastal dunes of the south-western Namibia/South Africa border region. It is potentially threatened by future mining activity. 

The Kaokoveld Desert

The Kaokoveld Desert is located in north-western Namibia and southern Angola, east of the Namib Desert. 

The Damaraland pygmy toad (Poyntonophrynus damaranus) is confined to the Kaokoveld Desert. 

The Damaraland sand frog (Tomopterna damarensis) is known only from a small area of north-western Namibia. 

Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes

The major lakes and rivers within the African Region include Lake Victoria and Lake Malawi, along with the upper Nile and Zambezi river drainages, in addition to numerous smaller, more ephemeral ones. 

The Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) is the largest Old World otter species and one of the most widely distributed, being found over much of sub-Saharan Africa outside the rainforest belt. It has suffered significant declines however due to hunting, habitat destruction, and pollution. 

Hopkins’ groove-toothed swamp rat (Pelomys hopkinsi) is confined to swampy areas between Lake Victoria and the Albertine Rift Valley. It has been recorded from western Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda, and possibly also occurs in Burundi and Tanzania. 

The wattled crane (Bugeranus carunculatus) is found patchily in wetland areas across much of sub-Saharan Africa outside of the rainforest belt, but is everywhere declining due to loss of habitat. 

The shoebill (Balaeniceps rex) is a large, stork-like bird so named for its enormous shoe-shaped bill. Known to both the ancient Egyptians and medieval Arabs, the species was, however, only classified in the mid-nineteenth century after skins and, eventually, live specimens were brought to Europe. Widely but very locally distributed in large swamps from South Sudan to Zambia, the total population is thought to be between 5000 and 8000. Threats include habitat destruction, disturbance, and hunting. 

The slaty egret (Egretta vinaceigula) is a rare species found primarily Zambia and northern Botswana, with occasional vagrants reported from north-eastern South Africa, southwestern and central Mozambique, Zimbabwe, southern Angola, and northern Namibia. 

The Maccoa duck (Oxyura maccoa) is found widely but patchily across the African Region, where it has been declining steadily for decades due to loss of habitat and pollution. 

The white-winged flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi) is an extremely rare rail-like bird with a highly disjunct range, being known only from seasonal marshlands in central Ethiopia and eastern South Africa, with a few additional historical reports from Zimbabwe. 

The Zambezi flapshell turtle (Cycloderma frenatum) is confined to the rivers and lakes of east-central Africa, in particular the Zambezi River drainage. 

The Cape clawed frog (Xenopus gilli) is confined to a few localities in extreme south-western South Africa (Western Cape). 

Tweddle’s cichlid (Haplochromis tweddlei) is known only from lakes Chiuta and Chilwa and associated rivers in southeastern Malawi and northern Mozambique, where it is threatened by overfishing and drought. 

The lowveld largemouth cichlid (Serranochromis meridianus) is confined to north-eastern South Africa and southern Mozambique. It is threatened by loss of habitat. 

Several species of commercially important tilapia cichlids (Oreochromis) have been severely depleted by overfishing and other factors. The greenhead tilapia (O. macrochir) and the threespot tilapia (O. andersonii) are both native to the Zambezi River drainage and associated lakes in south-central Africa, from where they have been translocated to many other parts of southern Africa and even Madagascar. They are threatened by competition with introduced Nile tilapia (O. niloticus). Trewavas’ tilapia (O. lidole), Günther’s tilapia (O. squamipinnis), and the Karonga tilapia (O. karongae) were each historically found in Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe, and the upper and middle Shire River, with the latter also present in two crater lakes in Tanzania (Ikapu and Itamba). Both are now close to extinction. Hilgendorf’s tilapia (O. amphimelas) is confined to Lake Manyara and a few other small Rift Valley Lakes in north-central Tanzania. Graham’s tilapia (O. esculentus) was historically found within the Lake Victoria drainage where it has been virtually extirpated apart from a few smaller satellite lakes due to overfishing and introduced species. The species has, however, been introduced into the Pangani River drainage of south-eastern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania.

The soda tilapia (Alcolapia alcalicus) is confined to the hypersaline Lake Natron drainage, Lake Magardi, and the Shombole swamps of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. 

The Guineas tilapia (Tilapia guinasana) was historically confined to Lake Guineas, a small sinkhole lake located in north-central Namibia. The species has since been introduced into Lake Otjikoto and other farm dams. It is threatened mainly by groundwater extraction. 

The rhinoceros yellowfish (Labeobarbus rhinoceros) is confined to the Athi and Tana River drainage in Kenya, where it is heavily fished. 

Four barbs of the genus Enteromius are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation as well as introduced species. The Marico barb (E. motebensis) is confined to small streams within the Marico, Elands, and Crocodile (West) rivers of northern South Africa (North West and Gauteng provinces). The Zalbi barb (E. zalbiensis) is confined to the Benue River in northern Cameroon, the Mayo-Kebbi River of Chad, and the Chari River of Chad and Central African Republic. The Amatola barb (E. amatolicus) is known only from the Kei and Mbashe rivers of south-eastern South Africa (Eastern Cape). The silver barb (E. choloensis) is confined to a few rivers and streams in north-eastern Mozambique and southern Malawi. 

The Somalian blind barb (Barbopsis devecchi) is known from a few streams, springs, and wells in the Nogal Valley of north-central Somalia. 

Several species of redfin (Pseudobarbus) are endemic to southern Africa, where they are threatened by loss of habitat and invasive species. The Eastern Cape redfin (P. afer) is confined to the Baakens, Swartkops, and Sundays river drainages of southern coastal South Africa (Eastern Cape). The smallscale redfin (P. asper) is confined to the Gamtoos and Gouritz river drainages of southern South Africa. The Maloti redfin (P. quathlambae) is confined to a few river drainages in Lesotho and eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). The border redfin (P. trevelyani) is confined to the Keiskamma and Buffalo river drainages of south-eastern South Africa (Eastern Cape). The Cape redfin (P. capensis) is confined to the Berg and Breede river drainages of south-western South Africa (Western Cape). 

Bottego’s sardine (Neobola bottegoi) is known only from Lake Turkana and the Omo River of Ethiopia and the Jubba River of Somalia. 

The Eastern Cape rocky (Sandelia bainsii) is confined to a few river drainages in south-eastern South Africa (Eastern Cape). 

Andruzzi’s cavefish (Phreatichthys andruzzii) is confined to a few isolated wells in the vicinity of Bud-bud Uaesele in south-central Somalia. 

The Tigray garra (Garra duobarbis) is confined to the Dirma River and one reservoir in north-western Ethiopia. 

Leleup’s robber tetra (Rhabdalestes leleupi) is confined to Lake Nyumba ya Mungu and its outlet to the Pangani River in north-eastern Tanzania, where it is seriously threatened by overfishing and habitat deterioration.

The Sibayi goby (Silhouettea sibayi) is confined to a few coastal freshwater lakes in north-eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) and southern Mozambique. 

Several species of killifish (Nothobranchius) are threatened by loss of their seasonal freshwater habitats. Lueke’s killifish (N. luekei) and the red-finned killifish (N. rubripinnis) are both known only from seasonal pools and swamps within the Mbezi and Luhule/Luhute river drainages of eastern coastal Tanzania. The elongated killifish (N. elongatus) and the Kikambala killifish (N. interruptus) are both confined to seasonal pools and marshes in south-eastern coastal Kenya. The Somali killifish (N. fasciatus) is confined to temporary pools, marshes, and reservoirs in south-eastern Somalia. The arrow killifish (N. sagittae) is confined to temporary pools and swamps within the Lake Victoria drainage of northern Tanzania. The Pwani killifish (N. albimarginatus) and the Rufiji killifish (N. annectens) are both confined to a few disjunct localities in central coastal Tanzania.

The East Coast lampeye (Pantanodon stuhlmanni) is confined to the lower reaches of river and brooks in the coastal areas of south-eastern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania, including salt pans. 

The Kibiti lampeye (Aplocheilichthys lacustris) is confined to Lake Kibiti in the Luhute River drainage and to the Mbezi River drainage in eastern coastal Tanzania. 

The giant catfish (Pardiglanis tarabinii) is known from the Juba and Shebelle rivers of Somalia and the lower Tana River of Kenya, with an additional possible record from the Ewaso Ng’iro River. 

The bifurcated suckermouth catfish (Chiloglanis bifurcus) historically occurred throughout the Crocodile, Elands, and Inkomati river drainages of north-eastern South Africa (Mpumalanga), Swaziland, and south-western Mozambique. The species has undergone a considerable decline due to dam construction and introduced fish species, and is now confined to a few higher-elevation localities. 

Engelsen’s airbreathing catfish (Clarias engelseni) is known only from its original collection in the 1920s from the Yei River of eastern Sudan. The Aigamas Cave airbreathing catfish (C. cavernicola) is known only from a small, deep pool within Aigamas Cave in northern Namibia, where it is threatened by water extraction. The total population is estimated at between 200 and 400. 

Zammarano’s cave catfish (Uegitglanis zammaranoi) is confined to a few caves near the Jubba and Shebelle rivers in central Somalia. 

Lake Afrera

Lake Afrera (formerly known as Lake Giulietti) is a hypersaline lake located in northern Ethiopia (Afar region). General threats include water extraction and salt mining. 

The Afrera cichlid (Danakilia franchettii) is confined to freshwater hot springs on the shores of Lake Afrera and nearby swamps. 

The Afrera toothcarp (Aphanius stiassnyae) is confined to the freshwater hot springs of Lake Afrera. 

Lake Magadi

Lake Magadi is a hot, saline, slightly alkaline lake located in south-central Kenya. Sir David Attenborough once noted that it was perhaps the most hostile environment on Earth still capable of supporting life. 

The Magadi tilapia (Alcolapia grahami) is a type of cichlid historically confined to the springs and lagoons around Lake Magadi. In the 1950s and 1960s it was also introduced into Lake Elmenteita and Lake Nakuru in Kenya and to Lake Natron in Tanzania (where it does not appear to have become established). It is everywhere declining. 

Lake Natron

Lake Natron is a salt and soda lake in the Arusha region of northern Tanzania. While most animals find the lake’s high temperature (up to 60°C) and salt content inhospitable, a few species of cichlid manage to survive in the slightly less salty water around its margins. 

The wide-lipped Natron tilapia (Alcolapia latilabris) and the narrow-mouthed Natron tilapia (A. ndalalani) are both confined to southern areas of the Lake Natron basin, where they inhabit a few springs and effluents. 

Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria is Africa’s largest lake and the world’s second largest by surface area. Located in a shallow depression, it has a maximum depth of just 80–85 m and is surrounded by three countries (Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania). The lake historically had an incredible number of endemic fish species including over 350 types of mouthbrooding cichlid, whose extraordinary diversity and speed of evolution were of enormous interest to those concerned with the forces that create and maintain the richness of life everywhere, and which served a vital role in the lake’s bountiful ecosystem. Unfortunately, during the twentieth century the latter was dramatically altered by a combination of factors. In the 1950s a proposal to increase fish catches in the lake by introducing the Nile perch (Lates niloticus), known locally as mbutta or sangara, was adamantly opposed by scientists, who feared that the lack of a natural predator for this exotic species would devastate the native ones. Despite the controversy, a colonial fisheries officer was ordered to clandestinely put the perch into the Ugandan portion of the lake that in 1952. Thereafter, it was introduced intentionally in both 1962 and 1963. By 1964 perch were recorded in Tanzania, by 1970 they were well established in Kenya, and by the early 1980s were abundant throughout Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda. Today, virtually all of the natural, biological wealth unique to Lake Victoria has been destroyed. Only a handful of the original fish species still survive, and their loss has resulted in eutrophication of the water and an increasing frequency of algal blooms. 

The variable tilapia (Oreochromis variabilis) is still found in some localized portions of Lake Victoria and a few satellite lakes and ponds. 

As mentioned above, it is the endemic mouthbrooding cichlids of the genus Haplochromis that have been hardest hit by changes to the lake. The following forms are most likely extinct: the thick-lipped cichlid (H. crassilabris), not seen since 1980; Linnaeus’ cichlid (H. vonlinnei), not seen since 1980; Ushind’s cichlid (H. ushindi), not seen since 1980; Plutonian cichlid (H. plutonius), not seen since 1980; the hiatus cichlid (H. hiatus), not seen since 1980; the iris cichlid (H. iris), not seen since 1980; the crowned cichlid (H. cinctus), not seen since 1982; the coprologus cichlid (H. coprologus), not seen since 1982; Katunzi’s cichlid (H. katunzii), not seen since 1982; the silvery cichlid (H. argenteus), not seen since 1983; the mylergates cichlid (H. mylergates), not seen since 1983; the pyrrhopteryx cichlid (H. pyrrhopteryx), not seen since 1983; Cnester cichlid (H. cnester), not seen since 1983; the different-mouthed cichlid (H. xenostoma), not seen since 1983; the yellowfin cichlid (H. flavipinnis), not seen since 1984; the ptistes cichlid (H. ptistes), not seen since 1984; Greenwood’s cichlid (H. aelocephalus), not seen since 1985; Heusinkveld’s cichlid (H. heusinkveldi), not seen since 1985; Michael Graham’s cichlid (H. michaeli), not seen since 1985; the obese cichlid (H. obesus), not seen since 1985; Barbara William’s cichlid (H. barbarae), not seen since 1985; Guiart’s cichlid (H. guiarti), not seen since 1985; Martin’s cichlid (H. martini), not seen since 1985; the yellow-draped cichlid (H. crocopeplus), not seen since 1985; the large-jawed cichlid (H. macrognathus), not seen since 1985; the small-toothed cichlid (H. microdon), not seen since 1985; the sulfurous cichlid (H. sulphureus), not seen since 1985; the Victorianus cichlid (H. victorianus), not seen since 1985; the long-snouted cichlid (H. longirostris), not seen since 1985; Cassius’ cichlid (H. cassius), not seen since 1986; Teunisras’ cichlid (H. teunisrasi), not seen since 1986; Teegelaar’s cichlid (H. teegelaari), not seen since 1986; Grant’s cichlid (H. granti), not seen since 1986; the dichrourus cichlid (H. dichrourus), not seen since 1986; the wasp cichlid (H. sphex), not seen since 1986; the dwarf sea bass cichlid (H. nanoserranus), not seen since 1986; Perrier’s cichlid (H. perrieri), not seen since 1986; the pancitrinus cichlid (H. pancitrinus), not seen since 1986; the perch-like cichlid (H. percoides), not seen since 1986; the dentex cichlid (H. dentex), not seen since 1987; Brown’s cichlid (H. brownae), not seen since the 1980s; George Ishmael’s cichlid (H. ishmaeli), not seen since 1991; the theliodon cichlid (H. theliodon), not seen since 1993; the small-toothed cichlid (H. parvidens), not seen since 1995. The surviving forms (if indeed they do survive) must all be considered seriously threatened: these include the red-headed cichlid (H. erythrocephalus), the few-scaled cichlid (H. oligolepis), Paraguiart’s cichlid (H. paraguiarti), the arcane cichlid (H. arcanus), Artaxerxes’ cichlid (H. artaxerxes), the azure cichlid (H. azureus), Barel’s cichlid (H. bareli), Barton’s cichlid (H. bartoni), Bayon’s cichlid (H. bayoni), the bicolour cichlid (H. bicolor), Bwathondi’s cichlid (H. bwathondii), the hollow-fronted cichlid (H. cavifrons), the grey cichlid (H. cinereus), the twobanded cichlid (H. diplotaenia), Fischer’s cichlid (H. fischeri), the giant cichlid (H. gigas), Gilbert’s cichlid (H. gilberti), Goldschmidt’s cichlid (H. goldschmidti), Gowers’ cichlid (H. gowersii), Howes’ cichlid (H. howesi), Kujunju’s cichlid (H. kujunjui), the large-headed cichlid (H. macrocephalus), Maisome’s cichlid (H. maisomei), the black-finned cichlid (H. melanopus), the small-headed cichlid (H. microcephalus), the blackish cichlid (H. nigrescens), the cloudy cichlid (H. nubilus), the Nyanza cichlid (H. nyanzae), the thick-headed cichlid (H. pachycephalus), the pallid cichlid (H. pallidus), Pellegrin’s cichlid (H. pellegrini), Pitman’s cichlid (H. pitmani), the prognathus cichlid (H. prognathus), Sauvage’s cichlid (H. sauvagei), Speke’s cichlid (H. spekii), the trident cichlid (H. tridens), Vanoijen’s cichlid (H. vanoijeni), Welcomme’s cichlid (H. welcommei), the acidens cichlid (H. acidens), the argens cichlid (H. argens), the altigenis cichlid (H. altigenis), the antleter cichlid (H. antleter), the apogonoides cichlid (H. apogonoides), the cow-eyed cichlid (H. boops), the greenish cichlid (H. chlorochrous), the chromogynos cichlid (H. chromogynos), the chrysogynaion cichlid (H. chrysogynaion), the Cronos cichlid (H. cronus), the hiddentoothed cichlid (H. cryptodon), the cryptogramma cichlid (H. cryptogramma), the decticostoma cichlid (H. decticostoma), the dolichorhynchus cichlid (H. dolichorhynchus), the empodisma cichlid (H. empodisma), the jealous cichlid (H. estor), the eutaenia cichlid (H. eutaenia), the spindle-shaped cichlid (H. fusiformi), Van Oijen’s cichlid (H. harpakteridion), the lowly cichlid (H. humilior), the igneopinnus cichlid (H. igneopinnis), the labriformis cichlid (H. labriformis), the weeping cichlid (H. lacrimosus), the leaden-blue cichlid (H. lividus), the yellow cichlid (H. luteus), the large-eyed cichlid (H. macrops), the spot-eared cichlid (H. maculipinna), the mandibular cichlid (H. mandibularis), the jaw cichlid (H. maxillaris), the honey-yellow cichlid (H. melichrous), the large-eyed cichlid (H. megalops), the black-finned cichlid (H. melanopterus), the chin cichlid (H. mento), the Nile cichlid (H. niloticus), Hilgendorf’s cichlid (H. nuchisquamulatus), the obliquidens cichlid (H. obliquidens), the blunt-toothed cichlid (H. obtusidens), the paraplagiostoma cichlid (H. paraplagiostoma), the parorthostoma cichlid (H. parorthostoma), the pharyngomylus cichlid (H. pharyngomylus), the plant-eating cichlid (H. phytophagus), the piceatus cichlid (H. piceatus), the oblique-toothed cichlid (H. plagiodon), the plagiostoma cichlid (H. plagiostoma), the precursor cichlid (H. prodromus), the pseudo-Pellegrin’s cichlid (H. pseudopellegrini), the retrodens cichlid (H. retrodens), the saxicola cichlid (H. saxicola), the serranus cichlid (H. serranus), the simotes cichlid (H. simotes), the small-scaled cichlid (H. squamulatus), the thereuterion cichlid (H. thereuterion), the thuragnathus cichlid (H. thuragnathus), the purple-velvet cichlid (H. tyrianthinus), the Victoria cichlid (H. victoriae), and the xanthopteryx cichlid (H. xanthopteryx). 

The Lake Victoria labeo (Labeo victorianus) is confined to the Lake Victoria basin, where it is seriously threatened by overfishing and loss of habitat. 

Loveridge’s barb (Xenobarbus loveridgei) is known only from three specimens collected from off the southern shore of Lake Victoria in the 1920s. 

The Lake Victoria deepwater catfish (Xenoclarias eupogon) has not been reported since 1997, and is possibly extinct. 

The Lake Victoria snake catfish (Clariallabes petricola) is known only from the northern part of Lake Victoria and from an area of the Victoria Nile near Owen Falls. 

Lake Nabugabo

Lake Nabugabo is a small satellite lake of Lake Victoria located in central Uganda. It formed as a result of sand dunes resulting from strong winds which separated the two around 5000 years ago. 

Simpson’s cichlid (Haplochromis simpsoni), Beadle’s cichlid (H. beadlei), the sailfin cichlid (H. velifer), the hunter cichlid (H. venator) and the linking-toothed cichlid (H. annectidens) are all confined to Lake Nabugabo. 

The Katonga River

The Katonga River is located in south-western Uganda. Its channel is continuous between Lake Victoria and Lake George, reflecting that it once drained away from the former into the latter. 

The Katonga cichlid (Haplochromis katonga) is known only from the Katonga River. 

Degen’s mormyrid (Petrocephalus degeni) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1906 in the mouth of the Katonga River, Lake Victoria basin. 

Lake Malawi

Lake Malawi (also known as Lake Nyasa in Tanzania) is the southernmost lake in the East African Rift system. Located between eastern Malawi, western Mozambique, and southern Tanzania, it is home to more types of fish than any other lake in the world, including at least 700 species of cichlids. Lake Malawi National Park is located at the southern end of the lake. 

Friedemann’s reed frog (Hyperolius friedemanni) is known only from two localities on the shores of Lake Malawi (Karonga and Monkey Bay). 

Four cichlids of the genus Melanochromis endemic to small areas of Lake Malawi are threatened by collection for the international aquarium trade. The Membe Point cichlid (M. baliodigma) is known only from a single locality along the eastern shore of the lake. The Chipoka cichlid (M. chipokae) is known only from two localities in the southern part of the lake. The Masinje cichlid (M. dialeptos) and the Makanjila Point cichlid (M. lepidiadaptes) are both known only from a small area along the south-eastern shore of the lake. 

Several cichlids of the genus Labidochromis endemic to Lake Malawi are threatened by sedimentation and collection for the international aquarium trade. The Masimbwe cichlid (L. zebroides) is confined to Masimbwe Islet near Likoma Island in the eastern part of the lake, where the total population is thought to be less than 250. Freiberg’s cichlid (L. freibergi) occurs naturally only around Likoma Island in the eastern part of the lake, but has been introduced near Thumbi West Island. The Chizumulu cichlid (L. chisumulae) and the strigated cichlid (L. strigatus) occur naturally only around Chizumulu Island in the eastern part of the lake, although the latter has been introduced near Thumbi West Island. The Boadzulu cichlid (L. heterodon) is confined to Boadzulu Island in the southern part of the lake. The violet cichlid (L. ianthinus) is confined to Mbenji Island and Nkhomo Reef in the southern part of the lake. The livid cichlid (L. lividus) is confined to the western coast of Likoma Island in the eastern part of the lake. The Mbenji cichlid (L. mbenjii) is confined to Mbenji Island in the south-western part of the lake. The Maleri cichlid (L. pallidus) is confined to the Maleri Islands in the southern part of the lake. The mylodon cichlid (L. mylodon) is confined to Mumbo Island and Thumbi West Island in the southern part of the lake. 

Several cichlids of the genus Copadichromis endemic to Lake Malawi are threatened by overfishing with seine nets and collection for the international aquarium trade. The Nkata Bay cichlid (C. nkatae) is known only from specimens collected in 1960 from the western shore of the lake. Geerts’ cichlid (C. geertsi) is known only from four localities along the eastern shore of the lake. Verduyn’s cichlid (C. verduyni) is confined to a small area of the south-eastern coast of the lake. Konings’ cichlid (C. mbenji) is confined to Mbenji Island in the south-western part of the lake. Trewavas’ cichlid (C. trewavasae) is known from Likoma Island, Chizumulu Island, and a couple of other localities in the eastern part of the lake. 

The Boadzulu cichlid (Nyassachromis boadzulu) is confined to the south-eastern arm of Lake Malawi, where it is has been recored from off of Boadzulue Island, Kanchedza Island, Domwe Island, Crocodile Rocks, and Chemwesi Rock.

Several cichlids of the genus Chindongo endemic to Lake Malawi are threatened by sedimentation and collection for the international aquarium trade. Saulos’ cichlid (C. saulosi) is confined to Taiwanee Reef north of Chizumulu Island in the eastern part of the lake. Demason’s cichlid (C. demasoni) is confined to Pombo and Ndumbi reefs on the north-eastern shore of the lake. Staeck’s cichlid (C. heteropictus) is confined to Chizumulu Island in the eastern part of the lake. Stauffer’s cichlid (C. ater) is confined to Chinyamwezi Island and Chinyankwazi Island in the south-eastern part of the lake. Seegers’ cichlid (C. longior) is confined to a small area along the north-eastern shore of the lake. 

Boulenger’s cichlid (Mchenga inornata) is known only from two specimens collected during the early twentieth century from an unknown locality within Lake Malawi. The Nankumba cichlid (M. cyclicos) from the Nankumba Peninsula in the southern part of the lake and the conophorus cichlid (M. conophorus) with an undefined distribution are said to be seriously threatened. 

The cruel cichlid (Rhamphochromis ferox) is known only from a few specimens collected from Lake Malawi and the Shire River. However, it has been established in the international aquarium trade. 

Axelrod’s cichlid (Cynotilapia axelrodi) is known only from Nkhata Bay and off Chirombo Point off the west-central shore of Lake Malawi. 

Several species of peacock cichlid (Aulonocara) endemic to Lake Malawi are threatened by collection for the international aquariumtrade. The Vua peacock cichlid (A. auditor) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1930s from the northern part of the lake. It is most likely extinct. The Kande peacock cichlid (A. kandeense) is known only from Kande Island in the western part of the lake. The Chitande peacock cichlid (A. ethelwynnae) is known only from near Chitande Island in the north-western part of the lake. The Chizumulu peacock cichlid (A. korneliae) is known only from near Chizumulu Island in the eastern part of the lake. The sulfurhead peacock cichlid (A. maylandi) is known only from West Reef (Luwala Reef) and Eccles Reef (Chimwalani Reef ) in the south-eastern part of the lake. The emperor peacock cichlid (A. nyassae) was long known only from a single specimen collected during the early twentieth century, until rediscovered near Boadzulu Island and in Manzinzi Bay in the south-eastern part of the lake in the 1990s. Hueser’s peacock cichlid (A. hueseri) is known only from near Likoma Island in the eastern part of the lake. The Mdoka peacock cichlid (A. aquilonium) is known only from a single locality off the north-western coast of the lake. Boulenger’s peacock cichlid (A. trematocephala) is known only from a single specimen collected during the early twentieth century from an undefined locality in the northern part of the lake. 

Several species of sandsifter cichlid (Lethrinops) endemic to Lake Malawi are threatened by overfishing by means of seine nets and bottom trawls. The large-eyed sandsifter cichlid (L. macrophthalmus) is confined to a stretch of the south-western shore of the lake. The small-toothed sandsifter cichlid (L. microdon) is confined to the southern part of the lake. Stride’s cichlid (L. stridei) along with the large-spined sandsifter cichlid (L. macracanthus) and Regan’s sandsifter cichlid (L. micrentodon) are still to be found throughout the lake but have suffered massive declines going back many decades.

Four cichlids of the genus Tropheops endemic to Lake Malawi are threatened by sedimentation and collection for the international aquarium trade. The smallmouth cichlid (T. microstoma), Romand’s cichlid (T. romandi), and the red-cheeked cichlid (T. tropheops) are all confined to the area around the Nankumba Peninsula in the southern part of the lake. The modest cichlid (T. modestus) is confined to the Maleri Islands and Chidunga Rocks in the south-western part of the lake. 

Several cichlids of the genus Pseudotropheus endemic to Lake Malawi are threatened by sedimentation, overfishing, and collection for the international aquarium trade. The Maingano cichlid (P. cyaneorhabdos) is confined to the north-eastern shore of Likoma Island in the eastern part of the lake. The Malawi yellow cichlid (P. flavus) is confined to the shallow shores of Chinyankwazi Island in the south-eastern part of the lake. Joan Johnson’s cichlid (P. joanjohnsonae) is confined to rocky areas around Likoma Island in the eastern part of the lake. The elongated cichlid (P. elongatus) is known only from Mkata Bay, Mbamba Bay, and Hongi Island in the eastern part of the lake. The interrupted cichlid (P. interruptus) is native to Chizumulu Island in eastern part of the lake, but has been introduced by fish exporters to nearby Likoma Island and to Nkhata Bay on the west-central shore. The cyan cichlid (P. cyaneus) is known only from Chinyamwezi Island in the south-eastern part of the lake. The blue-grey cichlid (P. johannii) is confined to a stretch of the eastern shore of the lake. The Chisumulu cichlid (P. tursiops) is known only from Chisumulu Island in the eastern part of the lake. The dark cichlid (P. fuscus) is confined to the north-western shore of the lake. The mottled cichlid (P. galanos) is known only from Mbenji Island in the south-western part of the lake, while the Likoma cichlid (P. perileucos) is native to Likoma Island in the eastern part of the lake but has been introduced to Thumbi West Island and to Otter Point in the south-west.

The lavender cichlid (Iodotropheus sprengerae) is confined to Boadzulu Island, Chinyamwezi Island, Chinyankwazi Island, and Makokola Reef in the south-eastern part of the lake. Stuart Grant’s cichlid (I. stuartgranti) is confined to a small stretch of the south-eastern coast of the lake. Both are threatened by sedimentation and collection for the international aquarium trade. 

The Nkhotakota cichlid (Protomelas macrodon) is known only from two specimens collected from a single locality on the south-western shore of the lake. The fire-blue cichlid (P. dejunctus) is known only from around Chinyankwazi Island and Chinyamwezi Island, in south-eastern Lake Malawi. 

The pointed-head cichlid (Trematocranus microstoma) has a relatively wide but highly disjunct distribution within Lake Malawi, where it is threatened by overfishing and collection for the international aquarium trade. The Jafua Bay cichlid (T. pachychilus) is known only from a single locality on the eastcentral shore of the lake. 

The rubberlip cichlid (Otopharynx pachycheilus) is known only from two disjunct localities in the northern and central parts of the lake. Oliver’s cichlid (O. lithobates) is confined to a few islands in the southern part of the lake. Both are threatened by overfishing, sedimentation, and collection for the international aquarium trade. 

Several cichlids of the genus Maylandia endemic to Lake Malawi are threatened by sedimentatation and collection for the international aquarium trade. Greshake’s cichlid (M. greshakei) is known only from Makokola Reef, west of Boadzulu Island in the south-eastern part of the lake. Hans Mayland’s cichlid (M. hajomaylandi) is confined to Chizumulu Island in the eastern part of the lake. Lombardo’s cichlid (M. lombardoi) is native to Mbenji Island and Nkhomo Reef in the south-western part of the lake, and has been introduced to Namalenje Island. The redtop cichlid (M. pyrsonotos) is known from a few disjunct localities in the southern part of the lake. The Mazinzi Reef cichlid (M. benetos) is known only from a few localities in the southern part of the lake. The Mpanga Rocks cichlid (M. emmiltos) is confined to a single locality in the north-western part of the lake. The red zebra cichlid (M. estherae) is confined to a few disjunct stretches along the eastern coast of the lake. The red-top cobalt cichlid (M. mbenjii) is confined to Mbenji Island in the south-western part of the lake. The Phaeos cichlid (M. phaeos) is found discontinuously along the central-eastern coast of the lake, while the xanstomachus cichlid (M. xanstomachus) and the golden fleece cichlid (M. chrysomallos) are known only from a few localities in the southern part of the lake. The cyneusmarginata cichlid (M. cyneusmarginata) is known from three localities in the south-western part of the lake and the pure cichlid (M. purum) is known only from an undefined locality (‘Nankhumba Peninsula’) somewhere within Lake Malawi. The Lake Malawi stone cichlid (Petrotilapia chrysos) is known only from the south-eastern shore of the lake, including the waters around the islands of Chinyamwezi and Chinyankwazi. Marsh’s stone cichlid (P. nigra) is known from two small, disjunct areas along the southern shore of the lake. 

The Lake Malawi labeo (Labeo mesops) is endemic to Lake Malawi and the Shire River system, where it is highly threatened by habitat destruction and overfishing. 

The Lake Malawi yellowfish (Labeobarbus latirostris) is an uncommon species endemic to Lake Malawi, from where it ascends the Bua and Shire rivers to spawn. 

The Lake Malawi salmon (Opsaridium microlepis) is endemic to Lake Malawi, from where it ascends affluent streams at certain times of the year to spawn. It is threatened by overfishing. 

The Upper Nile River Drainage

The upper Nile River drainage includes its two major tributaries (the Blue Nile and the White Nile, respectively), from their sources to their junction with the lower Nile at Khartoum in the Sudan. 

The Abyssinian stone loach (Afronemacheilus abyssinicus) is known from the Blue Nile at its outlet from Lake Tana and from the Baro River. 

The Blue Nile

The Blue Nile (an-nil al-‘Azraqu in Arabic/T’ik’uri Abayi in Amharic) is one of the two major tributaries of the Nile River and the source of most of its water and silt. It originates at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows south-east into South Sudan before ultimately joins the White Nile near Khartoum, in Sudan. 

The Tana barb (Enteromius pleurogramma) is known only from a few specimens collected within the Blue Nile basin, including Lake Tana. 

Lake Tana (T’ana Hayk’ in Amharic) is located in the Ethiopian Highlands. It is the source of the Blue Nile. 

The sharp-beaked yellowfish (Labeobarbus acutirostris), Gorguar’s yellowfish (L. gorguari), Dainelli’s yellowfish (L. dainellii), the large-eyed yellowfish (L. macrophtalmus), the flat-backed yellowfish (L. platydorsus), Rüppell’s yellowfish (L. surkis), the long yellowfish (L. longissimus), the Osse yellowfish (L. osseensis), the Gorgor yellowfish (L. gorgorensis), and the thick-barbed yellowfish (L. crassibarbis) are all endemic to Lake Tana and its feeder rivers, where they are threatened by overfishing, habitat destruction and damming projects that obstruct their spawning grounds. 

The regressive garra (Garra regressus) and the Tana garra (G. tana) are endemic to Lake Tana, where they have been heavily impacted by overfishing. 

The Lesser Abay River is located in the Choke Mountains of north-western Ethiopia. 

The Ethiopian amphibious rat (Nilopegamys plumbeus) is a semi-aquatic species known only from a single specimen collected in 1928 from the Lesser Abay River. Most of its habitat has since been destroyed and it is likely extinct, although there have been a few unconfirmed sightings over the years.

The White Nile

The White Nile (an-nil al-‘abyad in Arabic) is the other of the two main tributaries of the Nile River. It is the longer of the two and arises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, from where it flows north through Tanzania, Uganda, and South Sudan. 

The Tonga barb (Enteromius tongaensis) is known only from its original collection in 1935 from a single locality in northern South Sudan. 

The Tonga labeo (Labeo tongaensis) is known only from its original collection in northern South Sudan in 1935. 

The White Nile sardine (Neobola nilotica) is known only from its original collection in Sudan in 1919. 

Keating’s mormyrid (Petrocephalus keatingii) is known only from a few specimens collected from the White Nile between the Sobat confluence and Khartoum in the early twentieth century. 

The Nile elephant-snout fish (Mormyrus niloticus) is known only from outdated records taken along the entire length of the Nile from the delta to Lake Albert in Uganda, the most recent of which was in 1929. The construction of the Aswan High Dam is believed to have caused the extirpation of this species in North Africa. 

The white-finned squeaker catfish (Synodontis caudovittatus) is known only from a few specimens collected from Ethiopia, South Sudan, and Sudan during the early twentieth century. It was last recorded in 1907. 

The Sudd is a vast swamp formed by the White Nile in north-central South Sudan. One of the world’s largest wetlands, it serves as a vitally important refuge for migrating birds. 

The Nile lechwe (Kobus megaceros) is a type of antelope largely confined to the Sudd swamps along the White Nile and Sobat rivers of South Sudan, with smaller populations in the Machar-Gambella marshes extending (although in very low numbers) into Gambela National Park in south-western Ethiopia. Human displacement and resettlement due to ongoing civil war has resulted in much habitat destruction, hunting pressure, and even large-scale slaughter in most of these areas. The proposed construction of a canal through the species’ core habit would have a devastating effect. 

The Achwa River (also known as the Aswa River) is located in northern Uganda and (marginally) southern South Sudan. 

The Achwa squeaker catfish (Synodontis macrops) is confined to the Achwa River. 

The Omo River

The Omo River is located in south-western Ethiopia.

Aramboug’s yellowfish (Labeobarbus arambourgi) is currently known only from a single locality in the Omo River. 

The Kaffa stone loach (Afronemacheilus kaffa) is confined to the Omo River. 

The Shabelle–Jubba River Drainage

The Shabelle, Jubba, and Lagh Dera rivers share a common mouth in south-eastern Somalia. 

The Shabelle River

The Shabelle River (Webi Shabeelle in Somali/Uebi Scebeli in Italian) originates in the highlands of Ethiopia and flows south-east into Somalia, where it becomes seasonal along the coast below Mogadishu. During most years it dries up near the mouth of the Jubba River. 

Boulenger’s labeo (Labeo boulengeri) is known only from a single locality within the Shabelle River drainage of eastern Ethiopia. 

The Shabelle suckermouth catfish (Chiloglanis modjensis) is known only from a single locality within the Shabelle River drainage of north-eastern Ethiopia. 

Lampe’s mountain catfish (Amphilius lampei) is known only from a single, undefined locality within the Shabelle River drainage of central Ethiopia. 

The Jubba River

The Jubba or Juba River (Wabiga Jubba in Somali/Giuba in Italian) is located in southern Somalia. 

The Jubba yellowfish (Labeobarbus jubae) is confined to the Jubba River. 

The Jubba catfish (Bagrus urostigma) is confined to the Jubba River. 

The Lagh Dera River

The Lagh Dera River is located in central and north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia. 

The Ewaso Nyiro River is located in central Kenya. 

The Ewaso Nyiro labeo (Labeo percivali) is confined to the Ewaso Nyiro River. 

The Boji Plains killifish (Nothobranchius bojiensis) is confined to intermittent freshwater marshes within the northern Ewaso Nyiro drainage. 

The Athi-Galana River Drainage

The Athi-Galana River is the second longest in Kenya. It rises in the Gatamaiyo Forest as the Athi River and runs some 390 km in the south-eastern part of the country before entering the Indian Ocean as the Galana River (also known as the Sabaki River). 

The Athi labeo (Labeo trigliceps) is confined to the Athi River. 

The Athi elephant-snout fish (Mormyrus hildebrandti) is a little-known species confined to the Athi River system, including the Tsavo drainage and Mzima Springs. It is threatened by habitat destruction and overfishing. 

The Tana River

The Tana River is located in central and eastern Kenya. At around 1000 km in length it is the longest in the country, running from the Aberdare Mountains to the Indian Ocean. 

The Tana delta smooth snake (Meizodon krameri) is known only from two specimens collected in 1934 from the Tana River delta.

The Mnanzini killifish (Nothobranchius willerti) is confined to the lower Tana River drainage, where it inhabits ephemeral water bodies in the floodplain or connected streams located in open as well as forested savanna. 

The feather-barbelled squeaker catfish (Synodontis manni) is confined to the lower Tana River. 

The Pangani River

The Pangani River is located in north-eastern Tanzania and adjacent areas of southern Kenya. 

Bloyet’s cichlid (Astatotilapia bloyeti) is confined to the Pangani River drainage, including Lake Jipe. 

The Pangani cichlid (Ctenochromis pectoralis) is a poorly known species that appears to have been extirpated from the Pangani River proper and may be extinct. However, isolated populations of similar fish have been reported from springs flanking Mount Kilimanjaro, the Chemka springs upstream of the Pangani and the Mzima springs in the Tsavo River drainage of Kenya. 

The red Pangani barb (Enteromius venustus) and the fourspotted barb (E. quadripunctatus) are both endemic to the Pangani River drainage. 

Lake Jipe

Lake Jipe is located on the Kenya/Tanzania border, within the Pangani River system. 

The Jipe tilapia (Oreochromis jipe) is a type of cichlid historically endemic to Lake Jipe, where it is highly threatened by overfishing. In recent areas it has managed to extend its range to adjacent tributaries. 

The Malagarasi River

The Malagarasi River is located in north-western Tanzania and south-eastern Burundi. 

Devos’ cichlid (Neolamprologus devosi) is known only from a few localities within the Malagarasi River. 

The Malagarasi largemouth cichlid (Serranochromis janus) is confined to the Malagarasi River. 

The Uvinza tilapia (Orthochromis uvinzae) is known only from a single locality within the middle Malagarasi River drainage in Tanzania. The Mazimero tilapia (O. mazimeroensis) is known only from the Mazimero and Nanganga rivers within the upper Malagarasi River drainage of Burundi. The Moso tilapia (O. mosoensis) is known only from the upper Malagarasi River drainage. The Malagarasi tilapia (O. malagaraziensis) is confined to the Malagarasi River, where it is threatened by habitat destruction. 

The Karomo tilapia (Oreochromis karomo) is confined to the lower Malagarasi River and its delta, where it is seriously threatened by overfishing and habitat destruction. 

The Malagarasi barb (Enteromius quadralineatus) is known only from the Malagarasi River. 

The Malagarasi salmon (Opsaridium splendens) is confined to the Malagarasi River drainage, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and sedimentation. 

The Mutsindozi snake catfish (Clariallabes mutsindoziensis) is confined to swampy areas within the Malagarasi River. 

The Ruchugi River

The Ruchugi River is located in western Tanzania. 

The Ruchugi tilapia (Orthochromis kasuluensis) is confined to the upper Ruchugi drainage. 

The Ugalla River

The Ugalla River is located in western Tanzania. 

The Majamazi tilapia (Orthochromis rubrolabialis) is known only from the Majamazi River, a tributary of the Ugalla River. 

The Wami River

The Wami River is located in eastern Tanzania. 

The Wami barb (Enteromius laticeps) is known only from two localities within the Wami River. 

Steinfort’s killifish (Nothobranchius steinforti) is known only from two intermittent pools within the upper Wami River drainage. Possibly extinct in the wild, it has fortunately been established in captivity by aquarium hobbyists. 

The Wami upside-down catfish (Atopochilus vogti) is known only from a single specimen collected from the Wami River in the early twentieth century. 

The Wami loach catfish (Zaireichthys wamiensis) is known only from a single locality within the Wami River. 

The Ruvu River

The Ruvu River is located in eastern Tanzania. It originates in the southern Uluguru Mountains and flows eastwards to the Indian Ocean. 

Lourens’ killifish (Nothobranchius lourensi), Foersch’s killifish (N. foerschi), and the Kisaki killifish (N. flammicomantis) are all confined to temporary pools and marshes within the Ruvu River floodplain. 

The Rufiji River

The Rufiji River is located in central, southern, and eastern Tanzania. 

Peters’ disichodus (Distichodus petersii) is confined to the Ruaha and Rufiji river drainages of central and eastern Tanzania, where it is threatened by overfishing and pollution. 

The Great Ruaha River

The Great Ruaha River is located in south-central and southwestern Tanzania, where it flows through the Usangu wetlands and Ruaha National Park east into the Rufiji River. 

The Ruaha shellear (Kneria ruaha) is confined to a few tributaries of the Great Ruaha River on the north-western slopes of the Southern Highlands in south-western Tanzania. 

The Kimami shellear (Parakneria tanzaniae) is known only from two tributaries of the upper Great Ruaha River. 

The Little Ruaha River is located in south-western Tanzania.

The Ruaha lampeye (Aplocheilichthys omoculatus) and the Usangu lampeye (A. usanguensis) are both confined to the Little Ruaha River. 

The Kilombero River

The Kilombero River (also known as the Ulanga River) is located in western Tanzania. It originates on the eastern slopes of the East African Rift and flows north-east into the Rufiji River. 

The Kilombero killifish (Nothobranchius kilomberoensis) and the Gemini killifish (N. geminus) are both confined to temporary pools and marshes within the Kilombero River floodplain. 

The Zambezi River Drainage

At 2574 km the Zambezi is the fourth longest river in Africa as well as its longest east-flowing. It rises in the highlands of Zambia and flows first south through eastern Angola before winding its way along the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, where it eventually empties into the Indian Ocean. Its most notable physical feature is the spectacular Victoria Falls on the Zambia/Zimbabwe border.

The Kariba tilapia (Oreochromis mortimeri) is confined to Lake Kariba and the middle Zambezi River drainage, where it is seriously threatened by competition with introduced Nile tilapia (O. niloticus). 

The gorgeous barbel (Cyplobarbus bellcrossi) is known with certainly only from a single locality within the upper Zambezi drainage, all other records being highly questionable. 

The Longa River

The Longa River is a tributary of the upper Zambezi located in east-central Angola. 

Rousselle’s barb (Enteromius roussellei) is known only from the Longa River. 

The ghost mormyrid (Paramormyrops jacksoni) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Longa River. 

The Kataba River

The Kataba River is a tributary of the upper Zambezi located in south-western Zambia. 

The banded tetra (Neolebias lozii) is confined to the Kataba River and its tributary stream, the Siandra. 

The Kafue River

The Kafue River is located in central Zambia (Southern, Central, and Lusaka provinces). The Kafue Flats are discussed under the flooded grasslands sections. 

The Lufupa yellowfish (Labeobarbus lufupensis) is confined to the Lufupa River, a tributary of the Kafue River. 

The Okavango River

The Okavango River (Rio Cubango in Portuguese) is located in Angola, Botswana, and Namibia. It is notable for not having an outlet to the sea: instead, it discharges into the Okavango delta within an endorheic basin of the Kalahari Desert. 

The Cutato River

The Cutato River is located in west-central Angola. 

The Cutato shellear (Parakneria fortuita) is confined to the Cutato River. 

The Komati River

The Komati River is located in coastal southern Mozambique and north-eastern South Africa (Limpopo and Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. 

The orange-fringed cichlid (Chetia brevis) was historically endemic to the Komati River drainage, where it is threatened by habitat destruction, water extraction, and introduced species. However, it was successfully translocated into a few impoundments within Kruger National Park in 1975. 

The Limpopo River

The Limpopo River is located in north-eastern South Africa (Mpumalanga and Limpopo), Swaziland, and southern Mozambique (Gaza province). 

The Blyde River

The Blyde River is located in north-eastern South Africa (Mpumalanga province). 

The Treur barb (Enteromius treurensis) is confined to a 4.5-km stretch of the upper reaches of the Blyde River. It was historically also found in the Treur River, a tributary of the Blyde River, but was extirpated there by the introduction of exotic fish species in the 1960s. The remaining population in the Blyde River is protected by a downstream waterfall, but remains vulnerable. 

The Olifants River

The Olifants River (Olifantsrivier in Afrikaans) is located in south-western South Africa (Western Cape and Northern Cape). 

The Clanwilliam yellowfish (Labeobarbus capensis) is confined to the Olifants River drainage. 

The fiery redfin (Pseudobarbus phlegethon) is confined to a few tributaries within the Olifants River drainage. 

The Clanwilliam labeo (Labeo seeberi) was historically widespread within the Olifants River drainage, but has been much-reduced due to the introduction of predatory fish species. 

Barnard’s rock catfish (Austroglanis barnardi) is confined to three small tributaries of the Olifants River in Western Cape province, where it is threatened by water extraction and introduced fish species. 

The Twee River

The Twee River is located in western Western Cape province. 

The Twee redfin (Pseudobarbus erubescens) is confined to the Twee River and its tributaries, where it is seriously threatened by habitat degradation and introduced fish species. 

Miscellaneous Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes

Lake Chad is located on the edge of the Sahara in Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria. A historically large, shallow, endorheic lake, it has varied greately in size over the centuries. 

The Bahr Sara trout barb (Raiamas shariensis) is a little known and perhaps doubtful species confined to the Lake Chad basin. 

Lake Abaeded is a saline lake located in Eritrea.

The Abaeded cichlid (Danakilia dinicolai) is confined to Lake Abaeded. 

Lake Ziway is a freshwater lake located in the Rift Valley of central Ethiopia.

The Ziway yellowfish (Labeobarbus ethiopicus) is confined to the deeper waters of Lake Ziway. Lake Abaya is a large lake located in the Rift Valley of southern Ethiopia.

Brunelli’s labeo (Labeo brunellii) is currently known only from Lake Abaya. 

Lake Turkana (formerly known as Lake Rudolf ) is located in the Rift Valley of Kenya and Ethiopia. It is the world’s largest permanent desert lake and largest alkaline lake, and supports a rich fauna. An active volcano forms an island in the lake’s centre.

Lake Turkana formerly contained Africa’s largest population of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus), which remain relatively common in some areas.

The Turkana hinged terrapin (Pelusios broadleyi) is confined to Lake Turkana. 

Lake Chala is a small crater lake located on the eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, on the border between Kenya and Tanzania.

The Chala tilapia (Oreochromis hunteri) is a type of cichlid confined to Lake Chala, where it is seriously threatened by siltation and introduced species. 

Lake Chungruru is a small, isolated, endorheic crater lake located in southern Tanzania (Mbeya Region).

The Chungruru tilapia (Oreochromis chungruruensis) is a type of cichlid confined to Lake Chungruru, where it is seriously threatened by overfishing and introduced species. Lake Kyoga is a large, notably shallow lake located in western Uganda. The shoreline is quite swampy and much of its surface is covered by water lilies.

Three cichlids of the genus Haplochromis are endemic to the Lake Kyoga basin. Worthington’s cichlid (H. worthingtoni) is confined to Lake Kyoga, while the broad-banded cichlid (H. latifasciatus) and the Kyoga cichlid (H. orthostoma) are found in Lake Kyoga and two smaller satellites (Lake Bisina and Lake Nawampasa). 

Lake Kijanebalola is located in southern Uganda.

The Kijanebalola cichlid (Haplochromis exspectatus) is confined to Lake Kijanebalola. 

The Luiche River is located in western Tanzania.

The Luiche tilapia (Orthochromis luichensis) is a type of cichlid confined to a few small effluents of the Luiche River. 

The Rufugu River is located in western Tanzania.

The Rufugu tilapia (Orthochromis rugufuensis) is a type of cichlid known only from the upper Rufugu River drainage. 

The Kalambo River is located on the Tanzania–Zambia border.

The Kalambo suckermouth catfish (Chiloglanis kalambo) is confined to the Kalambo River drainage. 

The Buzi River (Rio Búzi in Portuguese) is located in south-central Mozambique.

The Buzi catfish (Chrysichthys hildae) is known only from a few specimens collected in the lower Buzi River. 

The Pungwe River is located in eastern Zimbabwe and western Mozambique.

The Pungwe barbel (Barbus hondeensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from the upper Pungwe River. 

The Cunene River is located in south-western Angola and north-western Namibia.

The Cunene citharine (Nannocharax fasciolaris) is known only from its original collection during the 1860s from the Cunene River drainage. 

The Berg River (Bergrivier in Afrikaans) is located in southwestern South Africa (Western Cape).

The Berg redfin (Pseudobarbus burgi) is confined to the Berg River and its tributaries, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and introduced fish species. 

The Breede River (Breedeivier in Afrikaans) is located in south-western South Africa (Western Cape).

Burchell’s redfin (Pseudobarbus burchelli) is confined to the Breede River drainage, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and introduced fish species. 

Coasts and Satellite Islands

This section is comprised of a small stretch of the West African coast along with the adjacent Cape Verde Islands, as well as all of the remainder of the African coastline and satellite islands from Angola to the Red Sea. The isolated South Atlantic islands of Ascension, Saint Helena, and Tristan da Cunha are also included here. 

The grey-headed thicket rat (Grammomys caniceps) is confined to dry coastal shrubland in eastern Kenya and south-eastern Somalia. 

Two species of golden mole (Cryptochloris) endemic to coastal dunes in western South Africa are seriously threatened by diamond mining. De Winton’s golden mole (C. wintoni) was historically known only from a small area of Northern Cape province. Not recorded for many decades, it is possibly extinct. Van Zyl’s golden mole (C. zyli) is known only from two localities in Western Cape and Northern Cape. 

The African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) breeds in scattered coastal colonies in Namibia and South Africa, with vagrants recorded as far north as Gabon and central Mozambique. In recent decades it has undergone a significant decline, most likely as a result of commercial fisheries and shifts in prey populations. 

The northern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes moseleyi) breeds primarily in the Tristan da Cunha Archipelago in the South Atlantic, with the remainder being found on the Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands in the southern Indean Ocean. The species has been declining for decades for reasons that are poorly known, although changes in sea-surface temperature, pollution, unsustainable levels of harvesting, fisheries by-catch, and introduced predators have all been implicated.

The Cape cormorant (Phalacrocorax capensis) occurs along the southern African coast from Angola to Mozambique, although breeding only takes place within a much smaller stretch. Several of its key nesting colonies in South Africa and Namibia suffered serious declines due to collapsing fish stock, oil pollution, human disturbance, and disease. The Bank cormorant (P. neglectus) is confined to Namibia and western South Africa, where its colonies face similar threats. 

The Cape gannet (Morus capensis) is a large seabird that ranges, during the non-breeding season, along the entire coast of Africa from the Gulf of Guinea to Kenya, but currently nests on on six small islands off Namibia and South Africa. Historically heavily hunted for food, today the main threats are collapsing fish stocks, storms and oil spills. 

The Damara tern (Sternula balaenarum) is a type of small seabird that breeds along the southern and south-western coast of Africa, from where it migrates north as far as Liberia. Its primary nesting colonies in Namibia are under threat by offroad vehicles, diamond mining, and residential development. 

Ash’s lark (Mirafra ashi) is known only from a single small stretch of coast in south-eastern Somalia, where it is threatened by development. 

The Obbia lark (Spizocorys obbiensis) is confined to a narrow coastal strip in south-eastern Somalia. 

The salt marsh leaf-toed gecko (Cryptactites peringueyi) is restricted to two subpopulations in coastal south-eastern South Africa (Eastern Cape). 

The Zanzibar Archipelago

The Zanzibar Archipelago consists of several islands lying off the coast of north-eastern Tanzania. There are four main islands, three primary islands with human populations and a fourth coral island that serves as an essential breeding ground for seabirds, plus a number of smaller islets. 

The Mrora toad (Mertensophryne howelli) is confined to Zanzibar and Mafia Island. 

Zanzibar

Zanzibar (formally known as Unguja) is the largest and most populated island in the group and has a fauna reflecting its connection to the African mainland during the last Ice Age. Hilly and at one time heavily forested, most of the original forest cover has been replaced by plantations and the wildlife heavily hunted and trapped. Many species have been largely or wholly exterminated as a result, most notably the local population of African leopard (Panthera pardus). 

The Zanzibar red colobus (Piliocolobus kirkii) is a strikingly attractive species of monkey that was apparently already rare and confined to the island in 1868 when it was first investigated by its discoverer, Sir John Kirk. Historically it may have occurred on the East African mainland, but has long been extirpated there. On Zanzibar it lives mainly in the low, thin coastal scrub of the south-eastern part of the island in Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park, as well as in the adjacent agricultural areas to the south and the coral thickets and mangrove swamps of Uzi Island some 10 kilometres to the south-west. Small numbers are also found along Zanzibar’s eastern coast and in some mangrove swamps in the west (including the uninhabited islet of Vundwe), with a small, translocated population in the Masingini Forest Reserve. The species was also introduced to the Ngezi Forest Reserve on Pemba Island in 1974, where it still marginally persists. Despite long being the focus of national as well as international conservation efforts it continues to be threatened by loss of habitat and degradation and, to a lesser extent, poaching for meat, persecution, road kills, and capture for use as pets. All told the population is thought to number less than 2000. The Zanzibar dwarf galago (Galagoides zanzibaricus zanzibaricus) historically occurred throughout Zanzibar but is now largely restricted to a few areas in the central and southern part of the island. 

The Zanzibar servaline genet (Genetta servalina archeri) first became known to science in 1995 when a specimen was killed near the Jozani Forest. It has since been recorded by camera traps within Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park. 

The Zanzibar blind snake (Letheobia pallida) is a little known species confined to Zanzibar. 

The punctulated reed frog (Hyperolius puncticulatus) is confined to a few localities in the western part of the island. 

The Zanzibar running frog (Kassina jozani) is known only from the Jozani Forest and its surroundings on Zanzibar. Pemba Island 

A mainly low-lying island, Pemba is separated from both Zanzibar and the African mainland by deep channels. 

The Pemba flying fox (Pteropus voeltzkowi) had, by the early 1990s, been reduced to no more than a few hundred individuals, although numbers have increased in recent years. 

The Pemba scops owl (Otus pembaensis) is largely confined to two small areas of forest (Ngezi and Msitu Mkuu). 

The Pemba green pigeon (Treron pembaensis) is confined to Pemba and adjoining coral islets. 

The Pemba wolf snake (Lycophidion pembanum) is confined to forests and plantations on Pemba Island. 

The Pemba gracile blind snake (Letheobia pembana) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1905. 

The Ngezi reed frog (Hyperolius watsonae) is confined to the Ngezi Forest in the northern part of the island. 

Pakenham’s puddle frog (Phrynobatrachus pakenhami) is confined to northern Pemba Island. 

The Mafia Archipelago

The Mafia Archipelago consists of one large main island and several smaller ones, some of which are uninhabited. 

The Mafia killifish (Nothobranchius korthausae) is confined to a few swamps, pools, ditches, and small streams on Mafia Island.

The Cape Verde Islands

The Cape Verde Islands (Cabo Verde in Portuguese) is a horseshoe-shaped cluster of 10 volcanic islands and 8 islets approximately 570 km off the coast of West Africa, divided spatially into two island groups. All are arid for the most part with vegetation consisting mainly of tropical dry forest and shrubland, although in certain more humid mountainous areas a unique type of cloud forest, known as laurel forest, has evolved. Through sheer isolation the islands have developed a number of endemic vertebrates, many of which are threatened by human activities and the introduction of goats, monkeys, and mongooses. 

The Cape Verde warbler (Acrocephalus brevipennis) was long thought to be restricted to the island of Santiago, but in 1998 it was discovered in small numbers on São Nicolau. In 2004 another population was discovered on Fogo. It is threatened by habitat destruction and drought. 

The Cape Verde house gecko (Hemidactylus bouvieri) is endemic to the archipelago, where two subspecies are highly threatened. The nominate form (H. b. bouvieri) occurs on São Vincente, Santo Antão, and São Nicolau, while the Raso house gecko (H. b. razonensis) is known only from Santo Luzia and Raso, having been extirpated from Santiago and Brava. 

Vaillant’s mabuya (Chioninia vaillantii) is a type of lizard that occurs on Fogo and Santiago Islands and on the islet Ilhéu de Cima (one of the Rombos Islets). Subfossil evidence suggests that it was formerly found on Maio and Boa Vista as well, but the species is now absent from these islands. 

The Barlavento Islands

The Barlavento Islands are the northern group of the Cape Verde Islands. 

The Cape Verde giant skink (Chioninia coctei) is only known for certain from a few specimens collected on the islands of Branco and Raso, but subfossil materials indicate that it may have once been more widespread in the Barlavento Islands. In any case the species was last observed in 1940 and appears to be extinct, a victim of overhunting and drought. 

Raso (Ilhéu Raso in Portuguese) is a small, uninhabited volcanic islet. 

The Raso lark (Alauda razae) is confined to Raso, where the total population is stable at around 100. However, even a slight habitat change may prove fatal to such a small and specialized population. 

The giant wall gecko (Tarentola gigas) is confined to the islands of Raso and Branco, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and introduced species. The Raso giant wall gecko (T. g. gigas) is confined to a few areas on Raso. Branco (Ilhéu Branco in Portuguese) is another small, uninhabited islet located west of Raso. 

The Branco giant wall gecko (Tarentola gigas brancoensis) is confined to Branco. 

Boa Vista is the easternmost of the Cape Verde Islands. 

The Boa Vista wall gecko (Tarentola boavistensis) is confined to Boa Vista Island and Sal Rei islet. 

The Sotavento Islands

The Sotavento Islands are the southern group of the Cape Verde Islands. 

Fogo (Ilha de Fogo in Portuguese) reaches the highest altitude of all the Cape Verde islands, rising to 2829 m at the summit of its active volcanco, Pico do Fogo. 

López-Jurado’s house gecko (Hemidactylus lopezjuradoi) was first described in 2008 from Fogo. Only a few specimens have been collected.

Santiago (Ilha de Santiago in Portuguese) is the largest of the Cape Verde Islands. 

The Santiago wall gecko (Tarentola rudis) is confined to the southern part of Santiago Island and on Santa Maria islet. 

Ascension

Ascension is a tropical volcanic island rising out of the deep waters of the South Atlantic Ocean, midway between the horn of South America and Africa. Rats probably came ashore soon after the island’s discovery in 1501 and cats were introduced after 1815. By 1843 the island was barren with few plants, and today introduced plants and trees cover most of the slopes. In recent years the UK government has taken steps to restore the island, and in 2016 announced that the area around it was to become a huge marine reserve. 

The Ascension flightless crake (Mundia elpenor) was a type of flightless rail known only from subfossil bones and a brief account made by merchant and traveller Peter Mundy in 1656. It is thought to have become extinct after rats were introduced to the island in the eighteenth century, but it may have survived until the arrival of feral cats in 1815. The Ascension frigatebird (Fregata aquila) is a large seabird confined to Ascension and the seas that surround it. In the early nineteenth century it was very numerous on the island but was extirpated there by introduced cats, thereafter breeding only on Boatswainbird Islet, a flat-topped, steep-sided rock 250 m off the north-eastern coast. With the successful eradication of cats on Ascension in 2006, however, the birds have once again started to recolonize. 

Saint Helena

Saint Helena is another remote, tropical volcanic island in the South Atlantic Ocean. When first discovered in 1502 by the Portuguese it was uninhabited and entirely covered in dense tropical forest, with even the tremendous cliffs that overhang the sea colonized by trees. Today nothing of these forests remains. Goats had been introduced by 1513, and in 1588 a visitor reported there were flocks ‘a mile long’. Since then cattle, dogs, cats, donkeys, mice, rats, and sheep were introduced as well. Fire also destroyed large forests. Moreover, humans introduced a great number of exotic plants, in particular New Zealand flax, and these now outnumber the native ones about 10 to 1. At least two endemic species of tree have vanished along with many of the native flowering plants, and much of the island is barren. The native birds have also suffered, with a number of species having gone extinct since 1502. Among these are the Saint Helena flightless dove (Dysmoropelia dekarchiskos), Saint Helena flightless hoopoe (Upupa antaios), Saint Helena gadfly petrel (Pterodroma rupinarum), Saint Helena Bulwer’s petrel (Bulweria bifax), Saint Helena flightless crake (Atlantisia podarces), Saint Helena rail (Zapornia astrictocarpus), and Saint Helena cuckoo (Nannococcyx psix), all of which are known only from fossils. 

The Saint Helena plover (Charadrius sanctaehelenae) is the island’s only surviving endemic land bird. The species is mainly found on pastureland and seems to fluctuate in population over time, with the most recent estimate being around 500. 

Tristan da Cunha

Tristan da Cunha and its smaller satellite islands of Inaccessible, Nightingale, and Gough lie roughly 2400 km west of the tip of South Africa. The vegetation has suffered from the heavy gales that sweep the islands and, of course, from humans. In sheltered places the growth is luxuriant but mostly stunted. The only woody tree is a buckthorn (Phylica arborea) and reed-like tussock grass (Spartina arundinacea) dominates the vegetation. Introduced pigs, goats, rabbits, and cats have long lived in a feral state, but these remote, volcanic islands nevertheless remain vitally important for seabirds in particular. Inaccessible and Nightingale have been uninhabited since the 1960s, with the former as well as Gough Island having since been set aside as wildlife reserves. 

The Tristan albatross (Diomedea dabbenena) breeds only on Gough and Inaccessible, having become extirpated on the main island of Tristan da Cunha. 

The Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross (Thalassarche chlororhynchos) breeds only on Inaccessible Island, Middle Island, Nightingale Island, Stoltenhoff Island, and Gough Island, from where it disperses at other times throughout the South Atlantic as far as south-western Africa and south-eastern South America. It is threatened by introduced species within their nesting colonies and by fisheries by-catch. 

The Atlantic petrel (Pterodroma incerta) breeds only on Gough Island and possibly Tristan da Cunha. 

Tristan da Cunha

Tristan da Cunha is the main island in the archipelago. It features an active volcano rising to 2060 m. 

The Tristan moorhen (Gallinula nesiotis) was a flightless bird that was wiped out, presumably by rats and pigs, about 1872. 

Three subspecies of Tristan thrush (Turdus eremita) are to be found on each of the main islands within Tristan da Cunha. The nominate form (T. e. eremita) is confined to Tristan da Cunha itself, where the population is estimated at around ‘several hundred’. 

Inaccessible Island

Inaccessible Island is located 45 km south-west of Tristan da Cunha. It is essentially a large, extinct volcano fringed with sheer sea cliffs and with only a few boulder beaches. Sailors have always been wary of its difficult landings and inhospitable terrain, and indeed the island has been without permanent inhabitants since 1873. 

The spectacled petrel (Procellaria conspicillata) breeds only the high western plateau of Inaccessible Island, although at other times ranges throughout the South Atlantic Ocean.

The Inaccessible rail (Atlantisia rogersi) is the world’s smallest flightless bird. It is endemic to Inaccessible where it is considered stable, thanks mainly to the fact that the island remains free from rats. Should they ever come ashore, however, the effect on this ground-nesting species would be catastrophic. 

The Inacessible thrush (Turdus eremita gordoni) is confined to the island. 

Three subspecies of Inaccessible finch (Nesospiza acunhae) are endemic to the island. The nominate form (N. a. acunhae) is found along the coastline, Dunne’s Inaccessible finch (N. a. dunnei) along the eastern edge of the island’s plateau and coastline, and Fraser’s Inaccessible finch (N. a. fraseri) atop the island’s plateau at 300–600 m. Wilkins’ finch (N. wilkinsi) is confined to Inaccessible and Nightingale, each with its own distinct subspecies. The Inaccessible Wilkins’ finch (N. w. dunnei) is confined to the island, where the total population is between 40 and 90 individuals. 

Nightingale Island

Nightingale Island is an active volcanic island just 3 km2 in area. It is the main island in a small group that also includes Middle and Stoltenhoff islands. 

The Nightingale thrush (Turdus eremita procax) is confined to Nightingale, Middle, and Stoltenhoff Islands. 

The Nightingale finch (Nesospiza questi) and the Nightingale Wilkins’ finch (N. wilkinsi wilkinsi) are both confined to the island. 

Gough Island

Gough Island is a rugged, rectangular-shaped volcanic island about 400 km south-east of the main Tristan da Cunha Archipelago. Surrounded by a number of smaller satellite islands and rocks, it is largely uninhabited apart from the crew of a weather station and is one of the most remote places on Earth. 

MacGillivray’s prion (Pachyptila macgillivrayi) is a type of seabird confined, as far as known, to Gough Island, although it may ultimately prove to be conspecific with the now-extirpated population from Amsterdam Island and an existing one on St. Paul, where a few hundred are confined to a single rat-free island. While still common on Gough, it remains vulnerable. 

The Gough moorhen (Gallinula comeri) was historically endemic to Gough, although in 1956 eight were released on Tristan da Cunha, which they subsequently managed to colonize (thereby replacing the now-extinct Tristan moorhen, G. nesiotis). 

The Gough finch (Rowettia goughensis) is confined to Gough Island.

 

Anthropogenic effects on the flora and fauna

After the evolution of modern humans (Homo sapiens) within Africa approximately 350,000–260,000 years ago the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers, some of whom migrated out around 50,000 years ago and proceeded to populate the rest of the globe. Other migrations within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement having been found in Southern Africa, North Africa, and in the Sahara. The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture. Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities, ranging from small family groups of hunter-gathers such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clans of the Bantu of central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clans in the Horn of Africa; the large Sahelian kingdoms; and autonomous citystates and kingdoms of West Africa and the coastal trading towns of south-east Africa. 

Early European exploration of the African Region was dominated by the Portuguese. During the mid-fifteenth century they had begun to sail ever further along the North and West African coast, in the process discovering the Cape Verde Islands. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounded what is now the Cape of Good Hope, at the southernmost tip of the continent, thereby opening up the important European sea route to India and the Far East. In the early 1490s the Portugese explorer Pêro da Covilhã visited the East African coast (what is now Kenya, Zanzibar, and Ethiopia). The remote South Atlantic island of Tristan da Cunha was first discovered in 1506 by the Portugese explorer Tristão da Cunha. In 1514–15 Antonio Fernandes explored inland, reaching present-day Zimbabwe. In 1618 the Spanish missionary Pedro Páez is believed to have been the first European to see and describe the source of the Blue Nile in Ethiopia. In 1826 the Scottish explorer Alexander Gordon Laing became the first European to reach the fabled city of Timbuktu, in what is now Mali. Sadly, he would be murdered upon leaving the city, but two years later the French explorer René Caillié succeeded in returning alive. In 1846 Candido José da Costa Cardoso discovered Lake Malawi, while Rodrigues Graça travelled from Angola to south-western Katanga, in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo. Around 1847–48 António da Silva Porto reached the upper Zambezi River. In 1848 the German missionary Johannes Rebmann became the first European to sight Mount Kilimanjaro. In 1849 David Livingstone and William Cotton Oswell crossed the Kalahari Desert to Lake Ngami, in what is now Botswana. A few years later, between 1853 and 1856, Livingstone became the first to traverse Africa from west to east, travelling from Luanda in Angola to Quelimane in Mozambique. He also explored much of the upper Zambezi, and discovered and named Victoria Falls. In 1858 Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke discovered Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. In 1862 Speke would discover the source of the Nile at the northern end of Lake Victoria. In 1864 the English explorer Samuel Baker discovered Lake Albert where, in the distance, his sighted the Mountains of the Moon (the Ruwenzori Mountains). Between 1875 and 1877 Henry Morton Stanley circumnavigated Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria, and sighted Lake George. Overall, however, European exploration of the African interior remained limited prior to the twentieth century, the latter being content merely to establish sporadic trading posts along the coast while they were actively discovering and colonizing the New World. Indeed, tropical Africa was one of the last areas of the world to be colonized and influenced by Europeans. Throughout this period human population remained sparse, with maps showing large areas of the continent labelled ‘unknown’. 

Slavery had long been practiced in Africa, at first exclusively by Arabs and Africans. Between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million West Africans to the New World. In addition, more than a million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa during this period. The decline of the slave trade during the nineteenth century was actually hampered by African leaders themselves. Between 1808 and 1860 the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1600 slave ships and freed some 150,000 Africans. 

The history of European colonization of the African continent was driven by Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy, and to this day nearly all countries speak the language imposed by their particular colonial power. By 1914 almost 90 per cent of Africa was under European control, with only Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Liberia remaining independent, although the former would later be invaded in 1936. There was a gradual decolonization after World War II, and since that time these states have been hampered by political instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. Border and territorial disputes have been commonplace, with the European-imposed boundaries of many nations having been widely contested by means of armed conflict. More critically, population has increased well beyond the carrying capacity of the continent, and continues to grow. As a result there has been an extraordinary increase in human population and a general devastation of the environment. 

In recent historical time (i.e. since ad 1500), the African Region has lost at least 56 species/5 subspecies of vertebrates. Among the extinct forms 1 species/5 subspecies are mammals, 9 species are birds, 3 species are reptiles, and 43 species are freshwater fishes. Another 12 species are possibly extinct. In addition, there are 808 species/68 subspecies currently threatened with extinction (that is to say, either Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List, as well as certain forms either listed as Data Deficient or Not Assessed but which are clearly at some risk of extinction). Of these, 113 species/50 subspecies are mammals, 115 species/16 subspecies are birds, 107 species/2 subspecies are reptiles, 138 species are amphibians, and 335 species are freshwater fishes.

 

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